第8章语言的使用
8.1 复习笔记
本章要点：
1. Speech act theory
言语行为理论
2. Cooperative principle and its maxims
合作原则及其准则
3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature
格莱斯会话含义理论
4. Politeness principle
礼貌原则
5. Post-Gricean developments
后格莱斯时期的发展
常考考点：
语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。“话语意义”和“句子意义”的区别。
本章内容索引：
I. Pragmatics
1. Definition
2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics II. Speech Act Theory
1. Performatives and Constatives
(1) Definition
(2) Felicity Conditions
2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act
3. Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts
(1) Representatives:
(2) Directives
(3) Commsives
(4) Expressives
(5) Declarations
III. Cooperative Principle (CP)
1. Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims
2. Violation of the Maxims
IV. Conversational Implicature
1. Definition
2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature
(1) Calculability.
(2) Cancellability
(3) Non-detachability
(4) Non-conventionality.
V. Politeness Principle (PP)
VI. Post-Gricean Developments
1. Relevance Theory
2. The Q- and R-principles
3. Levinson’s Q-, I-and M-principles
▼4. A socio-cognitive approach
I. Pragmatics (语用学)
【考点：Pragmatics与Semantics的异同】
1. Definition (定义)
Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.
语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics (语用学和语义学的区别)
Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, so they are related to as well as different from each other.
It differs from the kind of meaning we studied in semantics in that it takes context into consideration while semantics concentrates on the study of literal
cooperative
meaning without context.
虽然语用学和语义学都是研究语言意义的学科，但是它们有着很大的差别：
语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，而语义学研究的是句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
II. Speech Act Theory (言语行为理论)
The speech act theory was proposed by the Oxford philosopher John Austin in his How to Do Things with Words.It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”
言语行为理论是牛津大学哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答“用语言干什么”这个问题。
1. Performatives and Constatives (施为句和叙事句)
Austin’s first contribution to the theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives, which could not be valued from the traditional view of truth-value. Thus, he made a distinction between performatives and constatives.
(1) Definition
Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and are not verifiable. Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.
【考点：判断一句子属于施为句还是叙述句】
(2) Felicity Conditions
Though performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate or felicitous, which are known as felicity conditions suggested by Austin as follows:
①There must be a relevant conventional procedure, andthe relevant
participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
②The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.
③The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and
intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.
However, Austin soon discovered that these conditions only apply to some cases.
奥斯汀提出自己理论的第一步是把句子分成两类：施为句和叙事句。它们不能应用于传统的真值判断方法。因此，他对施为句和叙事句作了区分。
(1) 定义
施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要
么用于验证，可以验证其真假。
(2) 合适条件
虽然施为句没有真假，但必须满足一定条件才是合适的。我们把奥斯汀的合适条件简化如下：
①必须有一个相应的规约程序，并且相关的参与者与环境是合适的。
②该程序必须正确全面地得到执行。
③有关人必须有相关的思想、感情和意图，而且必须有相关的后续行为。
但是奥斯汀很快就认识到，这些条件只适用于部分情况。
2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act (行事行为理论)
Later on, Austin gave up his initial distinction between constatives and performatives. He set up another model to explain the way acts were performed by means of language. According to his new
model, a speaker might be performing three acts at the same time when speaking. The three acts are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
A locutionary act is the one of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is the act performed in saying something.
A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or as a result of saying something. It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
【考点：分析三种言语行为的区别；指出一对话中包含的言语行为】
Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act for this kind of speech act is in agreement with the speaker’s intention. And in their study of language communication, linguists are most attracted by how a speaker expresses his intentions and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.

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