Linguistics定义：Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language.(it is meant its investigation by means of controlled and empirically verifiable observations and with reference to some general theory of language.
Lexicology定义：it is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language.
Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic, diachronic
Synchronic:it means descrambling a language as it exists at one point of time.
Diachronic:it means concerned with historical development of a language.
The divisions of the history of the English language:
①Old English or Anglo-Saxon period, full inflection.
②Middle English period, leveled inflections. ③Modern English period, lost inflections.
Some characteristics of old English：
①The pronunciation, long vowels have changed a great deal.
②The vocabulary, consisted mainly of Anglo-Saxon words.
③It was a highly inflected language.
Words of Native Origin: ①native words, ②borrowed words Native words特征: ①polysemic ②collocability ③word-forming ability
Semiotic triangle语义三角理论：
①Symbol is the linguistic element, word, sentence, etc.
②Referent is the object.
③Thought and reference is concept.
Word定义：Most words can be to non-motivated. That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not have a logical explanation. Nevertheless, English does have words meanings can be explained to a certain extent.
Motivation定义：it accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
Motivation分类①phonetic—②grammatical (morphological)—③meaning（semantic）--
Main types of word meaning：词义类型
①grammatical meaning
②②lexical—③contextual—
Context分类：
①linguistic context: it refers to the word that occur together with the word in question.
②Non-linguistic context refers to context of situation, culture,
style.
Synonyms同义词定义：synonyms are traditionally defined as words different in sound and spelling but identical or similar in meaning.
Absolute synonyms and relative synonyms绝对同义词和相对的不同①In the shade of meaning.
②In stylistic meaning.
③In emotive meaning.
④In range of use
⑤In collocation
⑥In British and American usages.
Antonyms: 反义词的定义：antonyms are traditionally described as words opposite in meaning.
Types of antonyms反义词类型：
Morphology, Semantics.
⑴Morphological classification形态学上的分类
①Root antonyms②derivative antonyms
⑵semantic classification语义学上的分类
①contraries②complementaries③conversives
Polysemy：多义关系定义：it means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.
two main process of sense-shift: ①radiation ②concatenation. Homonymy定义：it is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form, but differ in meaning.
Homonyms定义：they are words different in meaning, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spelling or sound.
Homonyms分类：①homographs②homophones③full homonyms Class membership of hyponymy: ①upper rerm (superordinate) ②lower term(hyponym)
Four tendencies in semantic changes四个词义的变化: 1.extension of meaning(词义的扩大)refers to the extension of the range of the lexical meaning. for example: bank, ampere, matter, bomb 2.narrow of meaning(词义的缩小)some words acquire narrower senses. like: meat, gear, city 3.elevation of meaning(词义的升格)words often rise from a human beginning to a position of greater importance because of social changes. like: fond, fame 4.degradation of meaning(词义的降格)words with    a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. like: villain, brigand.
修辞：metaphor:  a metaphor ,like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.
Synecdoche:Synecdoche is a figure of speech that involves the substitution of the part for the whole or the whole for the part. Euphemism:Euphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation.
Tow types of Morphemes according to character:
1.free morphemes:~ are morphemes which can occur as separate works. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word.
2.bound morphemes:~ are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or
free in a word.
Morph（形素）意：Morphemes are also abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units, known as morphs. Allomorphs（形位变体）意：Some morphemes are expressed by more tha
n one morph according to their position in a word or sentence, such alternative morphs are called allomorphs or morphemic variants.
Affixation词缀：Affixation is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base. Prefixation:~ is a main type of word-formation putting a prefix in front of the base, sometimes with, but more usually without a change of word class, e.g. dislike(dis+like)
Suffixation：is a main type of word-formation putting a suffix after the base, sometimes with, but more usually without a change of word frankness(frank+ness)
Conversion（转化法）意：~(or full conversion) is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. And it is treated as a process now available for extending the lexical resources of the English language, e.g. the verb release is converted to the noun release.
There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion.
partial conversion:~ is conversion, where a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class. In such structures as the wealthy(=wealthy people) the ignorant, the kind…
Compounding合成词：~ is a main type of word-formation adding one base to another, such that usually the one placed in front in some sense subcategorizes the one that follows, e.g. blackbird. Compound复合词：a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
Compounding和Compound区别：Compounding indicate the relation of the compounding elements by syntactic paraphrases. We may take turntable and knitwear for example. These two compounds are similar, and consist of verb+noun. But the relations of their compounding elements are different. The former means the table turns, that is, verb+subject, the latter refers to the fact that someone knits his wear, that is, verb+object.
Clipping or shortening 截断构词法：~ is a method of shortening a word without changing its meaning. Words like gas(from gasoline), bus(from omnibus),etc. are formed by clipping.
1.front clipping前截断:chute—from parachute, copter—from helicopter, phone—from telephone or earphone.
2.back clipping后截断:ad—from advertisement, lab—from laboratory, lib—from liberation
3.front and back clipping前后截断:flu—from influenza, fridge—from refrigerator.
4.middle clipping中截断:bike—from bicycle, curtsy—from courtesy.
Acronyms首字母缩略词:Acronyms are a special kind of clipping. An acronyms is a word formed from the initial letter of a word that makes up a name. There are two types of acronyms according to pronunciation and morphological structures.①acronyms which are pronounced as sequence of letters can be called alphabetisms. COD—[BrE] cash on delivery; [AmE] collect on delivery. DIY—[BrE] do-it-yourself, e.g. a DIY kit, DIY enthusiasts. UN—the United Nations.②Acronyms are pronounced as a word, e.g. LAN—Local Area Network. NATO—The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. DA—doctor of arts. DE—doctor of engineering.
Blending混成构词法：Blending is a very productive process, especially in commercial coinages. A blend is a compound word made be blending one word with another word. Though not all blends become standard, most of them have been more or less acceptable in the English language. That is to say, blending is a process of word-formation, in which a new word is made by using the parts or the full form of the two words and combining their meanings. For example, Amerind is derived from American Indian; Europort is formed from a European port., advertics—advertising statistics, moonmark—moon+landmark(a landmark on the moon), astropolicy—astronautical+policy(a policy insured for astronauts), Amerind—American+Indian, American Indian.
Idioms习语：An idiom is an element of language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use. In other words, an idiom is a fixed group of words or a single word, or even a sentence, with a special meaning that cannot be guessed from its structure. That is to say, the meaning of an idiom must be learned as a whole.
The features of English idioms英语习语的特征：
1.structural stability结构稳定性：①English idioms can be very short or rather long.②English idioms take different structures.③The idioms which cannot be changed at all are called fixed idioms.
2.semantic unity语义统一性：①An English idiom has a special meaning.②English idioms represent a semantic unit, though they contain a group of words.③English idioms are usually made of commonly-used words. They are vivid in usage, brief in structure and profound in meaning.
1. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.
2. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about.
3. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world
in the human mind.
4. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.
5. Semantic motivation explains the connection between the literal
sense and figurative sense of the word.
6. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.
7. The same word may have different grammatical meanings as shown in ―do, does, did, done, doing‖.
8.Connotative meaning is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period and so on.
9. The word ―famous‖ is appreciative, but the word ―notorious‖ is pejorative.
10. The words ―swimming-pool‖ and ―airmail‖ are morphologically motivated words.
1. Extension is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
2. Extension and narrowing are thought to be the most common of the modes of word-meaning changes.
3. Narrowing of meaning is also called specialization.
4. There are generally two major factors that cause changes in word-meaning
5. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors.
6. Transfer may also occur between abstract and concrete meanings
7. The word ―clear-sounding‖ is a good example of transfer of sensationsconversion翻译方法的定义
8. Elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
9. Changes of word-meaning are due to linguistic factors and extra-linguistic factors.
10. It is much more common for word meanings to change in denotation from neutral to pejorative than it is for them to go the other way.
1. A Word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units.
2. The plural morpheme has a number of allomorphs in different sound context.
3. There is no free morpheme in the word ―dictation‖.
4. Free morphemes and free roots are identical.
5. Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words are called derivational affixes.
6. The word ―internationalists‖ has five functions morphemes.
7. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.
8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.
1. What is motivation? How is it classified?
1) Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
2) Motivation is classified into onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation.
2. What is grammatical meaning?
Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their reflectional forms. Grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context. Different lexical items may have the same grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings.
1. The pen is mightier than the sword.
What kind of motivation is used in the above sentence? What is the definition of that motivation? What do “pen” and “sword” mean?
1) Semantic motivation is used in the sentence.
2) Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
3) ―Pen‖ and ―sword‖ are two semantically motivated words. Their literal meanings are ―a tool for writing or drawing with ink‖ and ―a weapon with a handle and a long metal blade‖ respectively, but their figurative meanings are ―writing‖ and ―war‖ respectively.
2Women are flowers; women are tigers.
Explain the grammatical, conceptual and connotative meaning of the word “women” which appears twice in the above sentence.
1) The word ―women‖ in the first part of the sentence and the one in the second have the same grammatical and conceptual meanings. Their grammatical meanings are: plural nouns and subjects; their conceptual meaning is: female adult.
2) The connotative meaning of the word ―women‖ in the first part is ―beautiful‖, or ―lovely‖, and that of the word ―women‖ in the second part is ―fierce‖ or ―malicious‖.
1. Cite four words to respectively illustrate extension, specialization, elevation and degradation.
In English there are four main types semantic change. They are generalization, specialization, elevation and Degradation. Generalization refers to the stretching of meaning. Most words begin as specif ic names for things. For example, ―thing‖ once meant ―a political or judicial assembly‖. Then it was generalized to mean ‗anything that exists or can be thought about‖. Specialization refers to ―shrinking of meaning‖. The old meaning of ―artillery‖ was ―munitions of war‖. Today it means ‗mounted guns‘. Elevation means that the meaning narrows a more favorable meaning. For example, ―naughty‖ once meant wicked and depraved. Today, it means only mild mischief. Degradation means that the meaning of a word narro ws toward an unfavorable meaning. A ―villain‖, for
example, was originally a man who worked on a farm or villa. And it came to be a term of reproach.
1. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, but now it refers to a specific animal. What kind of word-meaning change has the word experienced? What accounts for the change of word-meaning?
1) The word ―deer‖ has experienced narrowing or specialization of meaning.
2) The narrowing of word-meaning is caused by the influx of borrowings, one of the major linguistic factors leading to the change of word-meaning. The word ―deer‖ originally meant
―animal‖, and later the word ―animal‖ from Latin and the word
―beast‖ from French found their way into English. As the three terms were synonymous, ―animal‖ retained the original meaning, the meaning of ―deer‖ was narrowed and ―beast‖ changed in colour.
1. What are the differences between a bound morpheme and a bound root?
Bound morphemes which cannot occur as separate words include two types: bound root and affix. A bound morpheme may be either a bound root or an affix. Bound roots, only one type of bound morphemes, are included in bound morphemes.
1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words. Point out the types of morphemes.
prediction strawberries encouragement
(1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes: prediction ( pre + dict + ion ), strawberries ( straw + berry + es ), encouragement ( en + courage + ment ).
(2) ―Straw‖, ―berry‖ and ―courage‖ are all free morphemes as they can stand alone as words.
(3) Of the nine morphemes, all the rest pre-, -dict-, -ion, -es, en- and –ment are bound morphemes as they cannot stand alone as words. Of the six bound morphemes, pre-, -ion, en- and –ment are derivational morphemes and –es is an inflectional morpheme, while –dict- is a bound root.

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