Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)
4.1 phonetics and phonology: 语音学与音位学的区分
Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech. 语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别
-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.
语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and us
ed in natural languages. 音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound system of a language. 语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体
Different languages have different phonological systems. 不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：
1Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
2Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot
change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another. 音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。
③  Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. 音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。
Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realization of phonemes in general. 音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。
4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体
The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaking, distinctive.
Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.
Three conditions（情况）:
1） the two froms are different in meaning意义不同
2） the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同
3） the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置
Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足） the three conditions .
Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。
4.4  identifying phonemes 识别音素
4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation
    对比分布，互补分布和自由变异
The minimaldistribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear. 一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。
1）contrastive distribution对比分布
If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning，they are said to be in contrastive distribution. 如果两个或更多的声音可以发生在相同的环境并且一旦一个声音替换另一个会改变的意思,那他们就是处于对比分布。
2）complementary distribution互补分布
If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment，that is，each sound only appears in the environments where the other sound never occurs，then they are said to be in complementary distribution. 如果两个或更多的声音从未出现在相同的环境中,也就是每一个声音只出现在其他的声音不出现的环境中,然后他们被称为处在互补分布。
3）free variation 自由变异
When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one
for the other does not cause any change in meaning，they are said to be in free variation. 当两个声音可以出现在相同环境但是替换一个其他不会导致任何意思的改变, 然后他们被称为处在自由变异。
4.4.2 Principles of identifying phonemes 识别音位的四个原则
（1） If two sounds are found to be in contrastive distribution,they are separate phonemes. 如果两个音处于对比分布，那么它们是两个独立的音位。
（2） If two sounds are always in free variation, then they are two allophones of the same phoneme. 如果两个音总是处于自由变异，则这两个音是同一个音位的音位变体。 
（3） If two phonetically similar sounds are in complementary distribution, then they are two allophones of the same phoneme. 如果语音上相似的两个音处于互补分布，则它们是同一个音位的音位变体。
（4）If two sounds are in complementary distribution but have no phonetic similarity, then they are two different phonemes. 如果两个音处于”互补分布”，但没有
语音相似性，他们肯定是两个不同的音位。
Procedures:过程
•1 check principle (1) and find minimal pairs. If yes, then two sounds are phonemes.
•2 If no minimal pair is found, check principle（2）. The answer is always NO, direct 
•3 Check principle （3）. if yes, phonemes. If no, come to principle 4
•4 Check principle （4）, if yes, phonemes
4.5 Distinctive features 区别性特征
定义：A distinctive feature is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,
区别性特征就是把两个音位相互区分的特征  like /nasal/,/voiced/.
•Phonetic features are used to describe allophones, or phones.
•The distinctive feature theory is put forward by Jakobson.
4.6 Phonological rules 音位规则
4.6.1 Assimilation rule 同化规则
定义：An assimilation rule is a phonological rule that is to describe the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.同化规则是描述一个特定音子下语音上下文和情形效果的一个语音规则。
It assimilates one segment to another by“copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme to another, thus making the two phones more similar. 它通过“模仿”一个序列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音子变得相似。

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