第一章绪论principles and theories to language Modern linguistics regards the imagined matters in the past1/ What is linguistics teaching and learning especially the spoken form of language as primary present or future or in far-away什么是语言学？teaching of foreign and second but not the written form. Reasons places.Linguistics is generally defined as language. are: 1. Speech precedes writing 2. Cultural transmission
语言的文化the scientific study of language. It Other related branches include There are still many languages that 传递性studies not any particular language anthropological linguistics （人类have only the spoken form 3. In While human capacity for languagebut languages in general. 语言学）neurological linguistics terms of function the spoken has a genetic we were2/ The scope of linguistics （神经语言学）mathematical language is used for a wider range born with the ability to acquire语言学的研究范畴linguistics （数字语言学）and of purposes than the written and language the details of anyThe study of language as a whole is computational linguistics. （计算机carries a larger load of language are not geneticallyoften called general linguistics. 普语言学）communication than the written. transmitted but instead have to be通语言学3/ Some important distinctions in Langue and parole 语言和言语taught and learned anew. ThisThe study of sounds which are linguistics The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure indicates that language is culturallyused in linguistic communication is 语言学研究中的几对基本概念made the disti
nction between langue transmitted. It is passed down fromcalled phonetics. （语音学）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定and parole early 20th century. one generation to the next throughThe study of how sounds are put
与描写Langue refers to the abstract teaching and learning rather thantogether and used in communication If a linguistic study describes and linguistic system shared by all the by instinct.is called phonology. （音系学）analyzes the language people members of a speech community Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学The study of the way in which actually use it is said to be and parole refers to the realization Definition 定义morphemes are arranged to form descriptive if it aims to lay down of langue in actual use. Saussure Morphology is a branch of grammarwords are called morphology. （形rules to tell people what they should made the distinction in order to which studies the internal structure态学）say and what they should not say it single out one aspect of language of words and the rules by whichThe study of how morphemes and is said to be prescriptive. for serious study. He believes what words are formed.words are combined to form Modern linguistics differs from linguists should do is to abstract 形态学是语法的一个
分支，研sentences is called syntax. （句法traditional grammar. Traditional langue from parole to discover the 究词的内部结构和构词规则。学）grammar is prescriptive while regularities governing the
actual use Morphology is divided into twoThe study of meaning in language is modern linguistics is descriptive. of language and make them the sub-branches: inflectionalcalled semantics. （语义学）The task of linguists is supposed to subjects of study of linguistics. morphology and lexical orThe study of meaning in context of describe the language people Competence and performance 语derivational morphology. The formeruse is called pragmatics. （语用actually use whether it is “correct” 言能力和语言运用studies the inflections and the latter学）or not. Proposed by American linguist N. is the study of word formation.The study of language withtypes是什么意思
Synchronic and diachronic 共时和Chomsky in the late 1950‟s. 形态学可分为两个分支科学：reference to society is called 历时He defines competence as the ideal 屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The description of a language at user‟s knowledge of the rules of his 学。前者研究词的屈折变化，The study of language with some point in time is a synchronic language and performance the 后者研究词的构成。reference to the working of mind is study the description of a language actual realization of this knowledge 1. Morpheme 语素called psycho-linguistics. （心理语as it changes through time is a in linguistic communication. He The smallest meaningful unit of言学）diachronic study. In modern believes the task of the linguists is to language 语言最小的意义单位。The study of applications as the linguistics synchronic study is more discover and specify the language The
meaning morphemes conveyrecovery of speech ability is important. rules. may be of two kinds: lexicalgenerally known as applied Speech and writing 口头语与书Displacement 语言的移位性meaning and grammatical meaning.linguistics. （应用语言学）But in 面语Displacement means that language 语素表达的意义有两种：词汇a narrow sense applied linguistics Speech and writing are the two can be used to refer to things which 意义和语法意义。refers to the application of linguistic major media of communication. are present or not present real or 2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类The English inflectional affixes 实例：combined with other words to forma Free morphemes 自由include: Tolerate 词根toler- ＋grammatical sentences. A sentence语素屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种词缀-ate is considered grammatical when it isFree morphemes are the 不同的语法关系或语法范畴，Quickly 自由语素quick in agreement with the grammaticalmorphemes which are independent 如：数、时态、形容词和副词＋词缀-ly knowledge in the mind of nativeunits of meaning and can be used 的级和格。现在英语中的屈折Carelessness 自由语素care speakers. Universally found in thefreely all by themselves or in 词缀包括：＋词缀-less 形成的派生词grammars f all human languagescombination with other morphemes. -es indicating plurality of nouns careless ＋词缀-ness syntactic rules comprise the system自由语素是独立的意义单位，表示名词复数Affixes are divided into two kinds: of internalized linguistic knowledge
能够独自自由使用，当然也可-es indicating third person singular prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀of a language speaker known as以和其它语素结合使用。present tense 表示现在时的第Prefixes modify the meaning of the linguistic competence.b Bound morphemes 黏着三人称单数stem but usually do not change the The syntactic rules of any language语素-ed indicating past tense for all part of speech of the original word. are finite in number and yet there isBound morphemes are the three persons 表示过去时Exception are the prefixe s “be-” and no limit to the number of sentencesmorphemes which cannot be used -ing indicating progressive aspect “en m-”. native speakers of that language areindependently but have to be 表示进行时前缀改变词干的意思，但通常able to produce and comprehendbined with other morphemes -er indicating comparative degree of 不改变原词的词性。“be-” 和“en 句法是一个由一套数量有限的either free or bound to form a word. adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副m-”是例外。抽象规则组成的系统，句子由黏着语素是那些不能单独使词比较级
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学单词组合而成。句子的语法性用，而必须和其它语素－自由-est indicating superlative degree of 1 ．What is 是指句子的合成必须符合操本语素或黏着语素－结合在一起adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和Syntax 族语者头脑中的语法知识。任以形成一个单词的语素。副词最高级Syntax studies the sentence 何一种语言的句法规则都包含3. Types of bound -…s indicating the possessive case of structure of language. The term 了说话者的头脑中的语言知识morphemes 黏着语素的分类nou
ns 表示名词的所有格syntax came originally from Greek. It 系统（称为语言能力）。Bound morphemes include two Derivational affixes are added to an literally meant arrangement. It 任何语言的句法规则的数量是types: roots and affixes 词根和
词existing form to create a word. This means that sentences are structured 有限的，但说话者可以理解和缀。is a very common way to create new according to a particular 表达的句子的数量是无限的。A root is often seen as part of word words in English. Such a way of arrangement of words. 3. The basic components of ait can never stand by itself although word-formation is called derivation Well-arranged sentences are sentence 句子的构成it bears clear definite meaning it and the new word formed by considered grammatical sentences. A sentence is a structurallymust be combined with another root derivation is called a derivative. The Grammatical sentences are formed independent unit that usuallyor an affix to form a word. existing form to which a derivational following a set of syntactic rules. comprises a number of words to词根被看作是词的一部分，它affix can be added is called a stem. 句法学研究语言的句子结构。form a complete statement question有清楚、明确的意思，但不能A stem can be a bound root a free 该术语来自希腊语，字意是排or command. Normally a sentence单独存在，它必须和另一个词morpheme or a derived form itself. 列。句子是根据一种特定的排consists of at least a subject （主语）根或词缀组合构成单词。派生词缀加在一个原有的单词列词的方式构成的。排列正确a
nd its predicate（谓语）whichAffixes are of two types: inflectional 上以构成一个新词。这是英语的句子被认为是合乎语法的句contains a finite verb or a verband derivational 屈折词缀和派生中的一个很常见的构成新词的子。合乎语法的句子是根据一phrase.词缀方式，这样的方式叫派生法，套句法规则构成的。句法是一句子是一个结构独立和完整的Inflectional affixes or inflectional 用派生法构成的新词叫派生个规则系统。语法单位，这一单位通常由一morphemes manifest various 词。能够加上一个派生词缀的2. Syntax as a system of rules 句些单词组成一个完整的陈述grammatical relations or 原有语素叫做词干。词干可以法是规则系统句、问句或命令。一个句子至grammatical categories such as 是一个黏着词根、自由语素或Syntax consists of a set of abstract 少包含一个主语和一个谓语，number tense degree and case. 者本身就是一个派生词。rules that allow words to be 而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。c The complex sentence 复合句意念论3. Sense and reference 意义The referring expression （被指称  A complex sentence contains two or The conceptualist view holds that 和所指的对象）such as a person a place more clauses one of which is there is no direct link between a They are two related but differenta thing an idea or an event is incorporated into the other. That is linguistic form and what it refers to aspects of
interpretation of 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系subject is usually a noun or a noun sentence hold unequ
al status one meaning they are linked through the 又有所不同的两
个方面。phrase. The part of sentence which subordinating the other. The mediation of concepts in the mind. 1 Sense is concerned withcomprises a finite verb or a verb incorporated or subordinate clause 意念论认为，语言形式及其所the inherent meaning of thephrase and which says something is normally called an embedded 代表的对象之
间（即语言与现linguistic form. It is the collection ofabout the subject is grammatically clause and the clause into which it 实世界之间）没有直接联系；all the features of the linguistic formcalled predicate. A finite verb is embedded is called a matrix 确切地说，在理解语义时，是it is abstract and de-contextualized.informally called the main verb of a clause. 通过大脑中存在意念这一中介It is the aspect of meaning dictionarysentence expresses existence 复合句包含两个或两个以上的物来联系的。compliers are interested in.action or occurrence which is limited 子句，其中一个被并入另一个3 Contextualism 语境论意义关心的是语言形式的内在by person number tense and 句子。复合句中两个句子的地Contextualism is based on the 意义。它是语言形式所有特征mood. 位是不同的，一个句子从属于presumption that one can derive 的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境主语是指句子中被指称的对另一个句子。被并入或是从属meaning from or reduce meaning to 的。它是词典编写者们所感兴象，如人、物、事、概念等。的子句通常被称为子句，而包observable contexts. Two kinds of 趣的语义方面。主语
通常由名词或名词词组构含子句的子句被称为主句context are recognized: the 简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，成。谓语是指对句子中主语进Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学situational context and the linguistic 抽象的，游离于语境之外的意行表述或判断的部分。谓语通1. What is semantics？什么context. 义。常由限定动词或动词词组构是语义学？语境论以这样的假设为基础：2 Reference means what a成。限定动词常被称为句子的Semantics can be simply defined as 人们可以从显而易见的语境中linguistic form refers to in the real中心动词，表述存在、动作或the study of meaning in language. 推知或归纳出语义。语境有两physical world it deals with the出现，限定动词送人称、数、语义学可定义为对语言意义的种：情景语境和语言语境。relationship.

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