⾃考英语语⾔学Chapter4Syntax
Chapter 4 Syntax句法学
⼀、本章纲要
⼆、本章重点
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. (2002，判断；2003名词解释；2007，4选择)
1. Syntax as a system rules句法规则系统
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. (2005，33名词解释)
The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances(⾔语)that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.
1）语⾔学中，句法学是和语⾳学，⾳系学，形态学，语义学等并列平⾏的次系统，主要是来分析研究语⾔的句⼦结构。句法是⼀个由⼀套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，这些抽象规则称为句法规则。根据句法规则，不同的单词组合在⼀起，产⽣符合语法性的句⼦。句法学的中⼼是研究句⼦的结构成分。
2）句⼦的语法性是指句⼦的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。⽣成的句⼦必须符合语法性。
3）单词合成句⼦，单词和句法规则的数量是有限的，但借助抽象的句法规则，可以将单词合成数量⽆限的句⼦。⼀⽅⾯，说话者要想说出或理解符合语法性的句⼦，必须遵循句法规则；另⼀⽅⾯，说话者运⽤句法规则，可以表达或理解从未听说过的句⼦。
4）任何⼀种语⾔，其句法规则必须能够描述和解释为所有本族语者认为是规范的句⼦。
2. Sentence structure句⼦结构
2.1 The basic components of a sentence句⼦的基本组成
A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句⼦是由⼀组单词合成的⼀个结构独⽴、完整的语法单位，可以⽤来进⾏陈述、提问、命令等。⼀般来说，句⼦⾄少要由主语和谓语构成。
主语是指句⼦中所被指称的对象，如⼈、物、事、处所、概念等。
谓语是指对句⼦中对主语进⾏表述或判断的部分。通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。谓语要受到⼈称、数、时态各语⽓的限制。
2.2 Types of sentences
句⼦的类型，句⼦可分为简单句、并列句和复合句三⼤类。
2.2.1 The simple sentence简单句
A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. （2007填空）指⼀个句⼦中含有⼀个主语和⼀个谓语。
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.（2006，14填空）当句⼦中只含有⼀个主语和⼀个限定动词，并且结构独⽴完整，这个句⼦⼜称为定式句。
The central element in a simple sentence, or in each clause, is the finite verb.
2.2.2 The coordinate sentence并列句
Contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other. (2008，填空) 由连接词（或称并列连词）串联起来的两个句⼦。如and, but ,or等都是并列连词。
例如：I am reading a book, but he is playing.
并列句中的两个⼦句在结构上是平⾏同等的，不存在主属之分，各⾃在结构上是独⽴的。
2.2.3 The complex sentence复合句
A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. (2001，填空)
The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (⼦句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). （2004，判断；2005，14提阿空）由两个或两个以上的⼦句构成，各个⼦句在句中的结构地位不同，其中之⼀为主要⼦句即主句，其余为从属⼦句。
例如：(1) Mary told Jane [that John like linguistics]
（2）Mary saw [John reading a linguistics book]
通过以上可以看出：
1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause. Therefore, the relationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part to a whole. (2004，判断) ⾸先，从属⼦句是复合句中的⼀个语法单位。因此，从属⼦句与主句之间是部分与整体的关系。
2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called a subordinator (引导词), such as that, if, before; 其次，多数的从属⼦句需要连接附属词将⾃⾝与主句相合起来，构成完整的句⼦。连接附属词不仅仅标志从属⼦句的起始，更为重要的是标志从属⼦句在主句中的语法功能。
3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes. 再者，⼀旦从属⼦句要作为简单句独⽴存在，其语法结构是不完整的，除⾮要进⾏适当的调整变换。
2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences句⼦的线性排列与层次结构
Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically--structured.(线形结构和层次结构) . 语⾔是⾼度结构化的系统，句⼦的组建不是⼀个随意性的过程，⽽要遵循⼀定的句法结构来构成有意义的语句单位。(2002，24判断)
2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence) 句⼦的线性排列
当说出或写下⼀个句⼦，句中的词单位是按照线性排列在⼀起的；当听到或读出⼀个句⼦，也是按照线性⼀个词⼀个词地延展下去的。
例如：The student dislikes that boring lecture.
2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence句⼦的层次结构（2006，33名词解释）
Sentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP). 表⾯来看，词在句⼦中的组合是按线型排列的，但并不表明句⼦的结构是线性的。实际上，句⼦结构的本质具有⼀种层次性。试对⽐下⾯对句⼦层次的划分。
a. The /student dislikes/ that boring /lecture.
b. The student// dislikes/ that boring lecture.
上⾯每个句⼦都有两种层次不同的划分，对⼀个母语是英语的⼈来说，他会毫不犹豫地认为b句和d句的层次划分是可接受的。如进⼀步地对b句和d句进⾏分析研究，会发现这种结构层次划分不是随意的，⽽是遵循着⼀定的规则。
Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 其实，也正是名词词组、动词词组等句法成份单位构成了句⼦的层次性结构。（2006，2008名词解释）
2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure句⼦结构树形图（问答题）
basic语言if语句
句法学家通常⽤“成分结构树形图”来揭⽰或表现句⼦的层次性结构请看下⾯图例：
这种“成分结构树形图”不仅可以揭⽰句⼦的线形关系，也能揭⽰句⼦的层次性。
同时，同⼀句⼦所含的不同层次结构，可⽤树形图来解释句⼦的多种含义。
例如：A. The old men and the women danced.
B. Visiting relatives can be tiresome.
上⾯两句的层次结构是含糊不明确的，每句都可分别理解为：
A (1): The old men and the old women danced.
A (2): The old men and the women (who were not old) danced.
B (1): Relatives who are visiting can be tiresome.
B (2): To visit relatives can be tiresome.
上⾯每句的两种不同理解可⽤“成分结构树形图”来清楚明了地区分。
A (1) The old men and the old women danced.
A (2) The old men and the women (who were not old) danced.
B(1) Relatives who are visiting can be tiresome.
B (2) To visit relatives can be tiresome.
3.Syntactic categories句法类型
所有的词都有某种词类属性即词性。词可分为主要词类和次要词类两种。
Apart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. 句法类型多指词类型和词组类型，它们在句⼦中都起着语法功能，如作主语或宾语。⽽且，同属⼀个句法类型的词或词组在相互替换时不失句⼦的语法性。
3.1 Lexical categories词类型
(2005，24 判断；2008单选) Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech (词类).
（2006，24判断）Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.
所有的词都有某种词类属性即词性。词可分为主要词类和次要词类两种。
1）主要词类⼜称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。在英语，它们主要有四类：名词（N）：student linguistics lecture
动词（V）：like red go
形容词（adj）：tall lovely red
副词（adv）：loudly constantly hard
2）次要词类⼜称闭合词类。这些词的数量⼀般来说是固定不变的，也不允许有新词加⼊。在英语中，它们主要有六类：
限定词(Det.)：the, a, this, his
助词(Aux)：can, will, do, be, have
介词(Prep)：in, at, to, on
代词(Pron)：he, she, us, mine
连词(Conj)：and, or, but, while
叹词(lnt)：oh, ah, eh
Phrasal categories词组类型
词类不同的词可以合成某⼀词组，在英语的句法分析中，常有四种词组类型，它们分别为：
Four: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.
名词词组(NP)：a red brick, the beautiful lake
动词词组(VP)：sing a song, write in ink
介词词组(PP)：on the table, at the gate
形容词词组(AP)：very clever, quite able
词组是⼀个句法概念。它可以由⼀个或⼀个以上的词组成。⽆论哪⼀类词组，都必须含词组名称所表⽰的词，及名词词组必须含⼀个名词，动词词组必须含⼀个动词，介词词组必须含⼀个介词，形容词词组必须含⼀个形容词。名词词组和动词词组属句⼦中最主要的词组。
4.Grammatical relations语法关系
A distinction between the structural and logical functions relations of constituents called grammatical re
lations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (2002，34名词解释) (**)语法关系是指句⼦中名词词组与动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构关系和逻辑关系。从结构关系上看，英语句⼦中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词不达意之后。这种置动词之前的主语叫作结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫作结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句⼦的形式主语和形式宾语。
从逻辑关系上看，意义起了决定作⽤。真正意义上的主语和宾语才是句⼦的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语指动作的执⾏者或发出者；逻辑宾语是动作的接受者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句⼦中的位置并不是固定不变的，它们可能同形式主语（结构主语）与形式宾语（结构宾）位置相同，也可相异。
www.doczj/doc/39aade0eba1aa8114431d987.html binational rules组合规则
5.1 Phrase structural rules短语结构规则
The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.（2001，3 选择）It

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