Chapter 10 Language Acquisition  语言习得
1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得
a)The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础
Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.
Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.
语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。
儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。
b)Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得
Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech.
语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。这并不意味着必须习得一种语言的语法体系的所有规则。儿童习得的是一些一般的原则，这些原则使口头语能合乎语法的基础。
c)The role of input and interaction 语言输入与交流的作用
Although human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is not a sufficient condition for language development. For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input.
虽然人的语言习得的能力是由遗传决定的，但这种先天遗传并不是语言发展的充分条件。要最终习得语言必须给儿童提供适当的环境，使儿童可以接触到语言信息并有机会用输入的语言进行交流。
d)The role of instruction 语言教学的作用
For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules.
对绝大多数儿童而言，语言发展是本能进行的，几乎不需要成人刻意的传授。事实上，父母向儿童传授语法规则徒劳无益。
e)The role of correction and reinforcement 纠错与强化的作用
Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.
纠错和强化并不是儿童语言发展的主要因素。强化通常出现在儿童的发音和转述事实方面，而不是句子的语法方面。
f)The role of imitation 模仿的作用
Selective imitation suggests that children do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted way to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.
选择性的模仿说明，儿童不是鹦鹉学舌般地模仿成人语言，而是对之加以有限的利用提高其自身的语言技能。结论是，模仿在儿童的语言学习中所起的作用不大。
2.Stages of first language acquisition 第一语言习得的发展阶段
a)The prelinguistic stage 前语言阶段
The earliest sounds produced by infants cannot be considered early language. The noises such as cries and whimpers of the new born in all language communities sound the same. Such noises are completely stimulus-controlled.
婴儿最早发出的多种声音不能算是早期的语言，是前语言阶段。无论哪个语言社区的新生儿都发出同样的声音。这些声音全部是应激性的。
b)The one-word stage 独词句阶段
At some point in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year, the babbling stage gradually gives way to the earliest recognizable stage of language, often referred to as the one-word stage.
在儿童接近一岁或一岁初的某个时间，咿呀学语阶段逐步被语言最早的可辨识阶段所取代，此阶段通常被称为独词句阶段。
Children’s one-word utterances are also called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.
儿童发出的一个词也可以被称为独词句，因为它们能够表达概念或论断，起到成人语言中一句话的作用。
One-word utterances sometimes show an overextension or under-extension of reference. Typically, children use the same word for things that have a similar appearance.
独词句有时表现出语义扩展过度或扩展不足的情况。非常典型的是，儿童会用相同的词来描述外貌相似的事物。
c)The two-word stage 双词句阶段
In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of he child’s second year. At this stage, children are heard uttering two-word expressions in a variety of combinations; express a certain variety of grammatical relations.
一般而言，双语句阶段大概开始于儿童一岁半到两岁期间。这个阶段，儿童所说的双语句的组合方式是多样的，通过词序表达许多不同的语法关系。
In addition, the language at this stage begins to reflect the distinction between sentence types, such as negative sentences, imperative and questions.
除此之外，这一阶段的语言开始反映句型的区别，如否定句、祈使句和疑问句。
d)The multiword stage 多词句阶段
Between two and three years old, children begin to produce longer utterances with more complex grammatical structures. When a child starts stringing more than two words together, the utterances may be two, three, four, or five words or longer, hence the multiword stage.

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