Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics
(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)
1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？
一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)
1. Language is systematic 系统性 （重点：语言的双重性duality）
  解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules. (ly certain combination of sounds are possible in English)
  双重性 duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.
2. Language is symbolic 符号性 （重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）
  解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是 people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：
伟大的现代语言学之父 Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支） of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。）
语言学家们比较无聊，决定把这些杂乱无章的符号分下类，于是就有了：
Icon
Index
Symbol
3. Language is arbitrary 任意性
  解释：there is no natural connection between meaning and sound, the word and the object, the form of word and their meanings.
  Saussure 又提出，there is no natural connection between signifier （能指）and signified（所指）。
但是，not everything about language is unpredictable. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.换言之，就是发明词语的人可以随便发明，用你就不能随便用了。总之你不能管桌子叫猪。
4. Language is primarily vocal （语言一开始是口语）
  这么说有五点依据：
1　孩子先学说话再学读和写
2　孩子一边长大一边自主学习语言
3　人类历史上先有说话再有写作
4　写作基于演讲的基础上
5　人们说话多写作少
5. Language is human specific （语言是人类特有的）
  解释：Certain characteristics of human language are not found in the communication system of others.因为，人类语言具有一下几种特性：
1　位移性 displacement: language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. E.g. My uncle went to shanghai last week.
2　多产性 productivity or creativity: humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel （新奇的）utterances.
3　文化传承性 cultural transmission：learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.
4　结构复杂性 language is complex in its structure
5　无界性 animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.
6. Language is used for communication
1.2 The function of language---语言的功能
  Language is not only a psychological phenomenon, but also a social fact.
  语言的功能被分为两类，一类是大体功能：general functions, 一类是元功能，metafunction (注意：general function是具体的，特殊的应用；元功能涵盖范围更广更抽象的功能)
一、general functions: 指特定的个体应用的语言（particular individual use of language）
Finch 列出了7种general functions：
1　Physiological/expressive/emotive function 心理\表达\情感功能：such function serve no communicative purpose,but they allow us to release inner feelings. （目的不是交流，就是表达自己感情）
E.g. 看球的时候说“shoot!”
2　Phatic function 含暄功能：language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers. （创造、维系人际关系）
E.g. 中国人说：“吃了吗？”
3　Recording function 记录功能：language allow us to record things we wish to remember. (让我们记住我们想记住的东西)
E.g. Historical record, geographical surveys,
4　basic语言是一种Identifying function 识别功能：language allows us to identify numerous objects and events.(知道桌子是桌子，板凳是板凳)
E.g. 给孩子起名字
5　Reasoning function 推理功能：much of our thinking is done with words or in words. (人们会依靠语言进行推理)
E.g. 说话和写作是思维的一种体现
6　Communicating function/referential/propositional function 交流功能：language is a means of communicating ideas and facts.
7　Pleasure function 快乐功能： human derive pleasure form language
E.g. Baby`s babbling 婴儿的牙牙语
补充：performative function 执行功能：human can perform acts with language. (有效力，有一定影响)
E.g. I sentence you to death.
二、metafunction
  Halliday 提出，语言元功能是指表意功能（ideational function），人际功能(interpersonal function )和文本功能(textual function).
表意功能(Ideational function): to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer.
人际功能(interpersonal function): express social and personal relations
文本功能(textual function):using the language to bring texts into being
总结：ideational function 指传递自己的意思 interpersonal function 指不仅传递自己的意思，还能让人听懂textual function指不仅能传达自己的意思，让人听得懂，还能形成文字让人看得的懂
1.3 The origin of language (没有事实，只有三种理论)
1　Creation (Divine Origin)---从宗教的观点来看
2　Evolution---随着人类进化演变而来
3　Invention---模仿自然，探索sound 与meaning 之间的关系

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