UNIT 1
JOHN SNOW DEFEATS “KING CHOLERA”
John Snow was a famous doctor in London—so expert，indeed，that he attended Queen Victoria as her personal physician.But he became inspired when he thought about helping ordinary people exposed to cholera.This was the deadly disease of its day.Neither its cause nor its cure was understood.So many thousands of terrified people died every time there was an outbreak.John Snow wanted to face the challenge and solve this problem.He knew that cholera would never be controlled until its cause was found.
He became interested in two theories that possibly explained how cholera killed people.The first suggested that cholera multiplied in the air.A cloud of dangerous gas floated around until it found its victims.The second suggested that people absorbed this disease into their bodies with their meals.From the stomach the disease quickly attacked the body and soon the affected person died.
John Snow suspected that the second theory was correct but he needed evidence.So when another outbreak hit London in 1854，he was ready to begin his enquiry.As the disease spread quickly through poor neighbourhoods，he began to gather information.In two particular streets，the cholera outbreak was so severe that more than 500 people died in ten days.He was determined to find out why.
First he marked on a map the exact places where all the dead people had lived.This gave him a valuable clue about the cause of the disease.Many of the deaths were near the water pump in Broad Street(especially numbers 16,37,38 and 40)．He also noticed that some houses(such as 20 and 21 Broad Street and 8 and 9 Cambridge Street) had had no deaths.He had not foreseen this，so he made further investigations.He discovered that these people worked in the pub at 7 Cambridge Street.They had been given free beer and so had not drunk the water from the pump.It seemed that the water was to blame.
Next，John Snow looked into the source of the water for these two streets.He found that it came from the river polluted by the dirty water from London.He immediately told the astoni
shed people in Broad Street to remove the handle from the pump so that it could not be used.Soon afterwards the disease slowed down.He had shown that cholera was spread by germs and not in a cloud of gas.
In another part of London，he found supporting evidence from two other deaths that were linked to the Broad Street outbreak.A woman，who had moved away from Broad Street，liked the water from the pump so much that she had it delivered to her house every day.Both she and her daughter died of cholera after drinking the water.With this extra evidence John Snow was able to announce with certainty that polluted water carried the virus.
To prevent this from happening again，John Snow suggested that the source of all the water supplies be examined.The water companies were instructed not to expose people to polluted water any more.Finally “King Cholera” was defeated.
约翰·斯诺战胜“王”
约翰·斯诺是伦敦一位著名的医生——他的确医术精湛，以至于成了照料维多利亚女王的私人医生。但当他一想到要帮助(那些)得了的普通百姓时，就感到很受鼓舞。在当时是最致命的疾病。人们既不知道它的病因，也不懂如何。每次爆发时就有成千上万惊恐的人病死。约翰·斯诺想面对这一挑战，解决这一问题。他知道在到病源之前，疫情是无法控制的。
他对致人死地的两种推测产生了兴趣。第一种看法是病毒在空气中繁殖，像一股危险气体在空中到处漂浮，直到到病毒的受害人。第二种看法是人们是在吃饭时把这种病毒引入体内的。病毒从胃部开始迅速殃及全身，患者就会很快地死去。
约翰·斯诺推测第二种说法是正确的，但需要有证据。因此在1854年伦敦再次爆发时，他就着手准备对此调研。当在贫民区迅速蔓延时，约翰·斯诺开始搜集信息。他发现特别在两条街上流行得很严重，以至于10天内就有500多人死亡。他决心查清原因。
他首先在地图上标注出所有死者曾住过的确切地点。该图提供了一条说明起因的很有价值的线索。许多死者都住在布洛德街上的水泵附近(尤其是这条街上的16、37、38和40号)。他还发现有些住户(如布洛德街20号和21号及剑桥街8号和9号)却无人死亡。他未预料到这种
情况，于是他做了进一步调查。他发现这些人是在剑桥街7号的酒馆里打工。酒馆为他们供应免费啤酒，因此他们没喝布洛德街水泵里的水。看来水是罪魁祸首。
接下来，约翰·斯诺调查了这两条街上的水源。他发现水来自于河里，这条河被伦敦排出的脏水污染了。约翰·斯诺立即告诉布洛德街上惊慌失措的人们拆掉水泵的把手，这样水泵就用不成了。不久，疫情就开始得到缓解。他证明了是通过细菌传播而非气团传播。
在伦敦的另一地区，他从另外两例与布洛德街疾病爆发有关的死亡病例中得到了有力的证据。一个妇女，从布洛德街搬走了，但她非常喜欢水泵的水，她让人每天从水泵给她家送水。她和她的女儿在喝了这些水后，都死于。利用这个额外证据，约翰·斯诺就可以很有把握地宣布污染水携带病菌。
为防止这种情况再度发生，约翰·斯诺建议，所有水源都要经过检测。供水公司也得到指示再也不能让人们接触污染水了。“王”终于被击败了。
PUZILES IN GEOGRAPHY
People may wonder why different words are used to describe these four countries：Englan
d，Wales，Scotland and Northern Ireland.You can clarify this question if you study British history.
First there was England.Wales was linked to it in the thirteenth century.Now when people refer to England you find Wales included as well.Next England and Wales were joined to Scotland in the seventeenth century and the name was changed to “Great Britain”．Happily this was accomplished威尔士和英格兰的关系 without conflict when King James of Scotland became King of England and Wales as well.Finally the English government tried in the early twentieth century to form the United Kingdom by getting Ireland connected in the same peaceful way.However，the southern part of Ireland was unwilling and broke away to form its own government.So only Northern Ireland joined with England，Wales and Scotland to become the United Kingdom and this was shown to the world in a new flag called the Union Jack.

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