1.Important Role of Translation
As a means of communication,translation plays an important role in human civilization.A proper and skillful translation helps to promote mutual understanding between peoples of different cultural and social backgrounds, whereas a misunderstanding or improper rendering of words or expressions may lead to confusion even disasters.
2.Definition of Translation
The Oxford English Dictionary:to turn from one language into another (从一种语言转换成另一种语言)
Webster’s third New International Dictionary of the English Language:to turn into one’s own or another language(转换成本族语或另一种语言) The general subject field or phenomenon.
The product,the text that has been translated.
The process of producing the translation,otherwise known as translating. 3.Nature of translation
How do you perceive translation?
Some people believe it is a science,others take it as an art;and yet many consider it a craft,or rather,a skill.
4.What is translation generally understood?
Meetham&Hudson
Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language.(1972)
Bell
Translation is the expression in another language
(or target language)of what has been expressed in another,source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.(1991)
5.Scope of Translation
Translation covers a very broad range.
1）In terms of languages,it can be divided into two categories:from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa;
2)In terms of language symbols it can be divided into[Roman Jakobson]
intralingual translation（语内翻译）：an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language；[it occurs when we produce summary or otherwise rewrite a text in the same language,say a childern’s version of an encyclopedia.It occurs when we rephrase an expression in the same language.]
interlingual translation（语际翻译）：an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language；[it occurs between two different verbal sign systems that has been the tranditional focus of translation studies.] intersemiotic translation(符际翻译)：an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems.[it occurs when a written text is translated into a different mode,such as film or painting.]
3)In terms of the mode,it can be divided into oral interpretation,written translation and machine translation;
4)In terms of materials to be translated,there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels,stories,prose,poetry,drama,etc., translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems,reports,speeches, etc.,and translation of practical writing such as official documents,contracts and agreements,notices,receipts,etc.;
6.History of Translation
In the West,translation can be traced back to300BC,while in China,recorded translation activities are even earlier,dating from the Zhou Dynasty(1100BC). However,not until recent centuries,especially by the end of the19th century did systematic study of translation get underway.In the past decades translation theories and activities have developed fast both at home and abroad.
The Major Stages of Translation in China
1、Translation of Buddhist Scriptures
2、Beginning Stage
3、Development Stage
4、Climax Stage
expressed翻译
7.Principles/Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing.The former lays emphasis on the translator,who should follow these principles while translating;while the latter on the reader or critic,who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works.
由于人们看待翻译的角度不同，自然有了不同的翻译标准
概括起来，它们大体可分为以下四类：
1.以译出语或译入语为取向的翻译原则
the source-language-oriented or the target-language-oriented
translation principle
2.以作者和读者为取向的翻译原则
the author-and-reader-oriented translation principle
3.以美学为取向的翻译原则
the aesthetic-oriented translation principle
4.以社会符号学为取向的原则
the sociosemiotic-oriented translation principle
中国的翻译原则
Whenever Principles/Criteria of Translation are under discussion in China,Yan Fu’s “three-character guide”,which was first proposed in1898,would be mentioned.
1.Yan Fu’s“three character guide”:
faithfulness,expressiveness,and elegance(信、达、雅).
The“three character guide”is regarded as a plumb-line of long standing to measure the professional level of translating.
2.Liu Zhongde:faithfulness,expressiveness and closeness(信、达、切);
3.Fu Lei’s(傅雷)spiritual conformity/resemblance in spirit（神似)
Emphasizing the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original.强调原作神韵再现。
4.Qian Zhongshu’s sublimed adaptation(化境)focuses on the translator’s smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
西方翻译原则
1.亚历山大·泰特勒(Alexander Fraser Tytler,1747-1814)的翻译三原则：
A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original
work.译文应完全复写出原作的思想
The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original.译文的风格和笔调应与原文的性质相同
A translation should have all the ease of the original composition.译文应和原
作同样流畅
2.Eugene Nida
Nida’s main contribution in translation theory is the dynamic equivalence
理论来源：Chomsky_transformational generative grammar
(动态对等)，and it is also known as functional equivalence(功能对等).The opposite approach is formal equivalence(形式对等).
Nida advocates the translation approach of dynamic equivalence.He distinguishes two types of equivalence:
A.Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself,in both
form and content”with aims to allow readers to understand as much SL context(原文) is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.
B.Dynamic equivalence,later’functional’.By dynamic equivalence,it
means“the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message.”
he emphasizes more on the effect the readers receive the message with the aim to“relate the reader to modes of behavior relevant within the context of reader’s own culture”.
The goal of dynamic equivalence,to seek the closest natural equivalent to the source-language message.The TT should not show interference from the SL, and the‘foreigness’of the ST setting is minimized in a way that would be criticized by later culturally-oriented translation theorists.
Principle:the conflict between the traditional notions of message and form cannot be resolved easily.As a general rule for such conflicts,Nida considers
that‘correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style’if equivalence effect is to be achieved.
Later,he realized that there is no absolute symmetry between languages,he prefers the term“functional equivalence”in the sense that“equivalence can be understood in terms of the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity.
For example:I am no Hamlet.
Formal equivalence：我不是哈姆雷特。
Dynamic equivalence：我不会犹豫。
3.Peter Newmark
Peter Newmark introduces two kinds of translation methods and three kinds of text types.
Translation methods:
semantic translation:it attempts to render,as closely as possible the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow,the exact contextual meaning of the original.Semantic translation is concerned with the author(usually as an individual,and often in contradistinction both to his culture and to the norms of his language).
communicative translation:it attempts to produce on its readers an effect as closely as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.
Communicative translation is concerned mainly with the readers(usually in the context of a language and cultural variety).
For example:Wet paint!
semantic translation(语义翻译)：湿油漆！
communicative translation（交际翻译）：油漆未干，请勿触摸！
Text types:
expressive text(表达型)
informative text（告知型）
vocative text（呼唤型）
In fact,Peter Newmark thinks that all translations must be in some degree both communicative and semantic.It is actually a matter of difference of emphasis.
He states clearly there is no purely semantic translation or purely communicative translation in translation practice,and only through a combination of the two methods can a translation be both accurate in meaning and acceptable to the target language reader.
The conflict of loyalties,the gap between emphasis on source and target language,will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice.
9.What is a good translation?
1．忠实准确：译文必须忠实于原文的内容，把原文内容完整准确地转达
出来。译者不能随意歪曲、增删、遗漏、篡改或阉割原文的内容。
2．通顺流畅：译文充分发挥译语的语言优势。译文语言必须标准规范、通俗易懂，符合译语的表达习惯。不应存在死译、硬译、生搬硬套、文理不通的现象。
3．风格得体：译文应尽量忠实转达原文的文体特征和写作风格。
谈看法：the benchmark for good functional translation is far more than being faithful and correct.Ultimately,effective translation is supposed to be concisely structured,clearly decoded and vividly delivered.
10.Literal translation Vs.Free translation
Literal translation is to translate something literally,that is,the translation will be definitely determined word for word,phrase for phrase,and the sequences of words and phrases will not be changed.The expression in the target language must be expressive and readable.
Free translation may be defined as a supplementary means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech.And it is adopted only when and where really impossible for translators to do literal translation.
谈看法：there is no point of choosing the better of the two without giving due regard to stylistics or specific fields.A capable,well-trained translator knows how to reconcile them and put them to the best use.
11.Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
While literal translation and free translation mainly deal with linguistic reproduction,foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are concerned more with cultural,linguistic and aesthetic consideration.
12.翻译的心得感悟
A translator has to defy a long,hard journey.Keep searching far and wide,
high and low,be versed in what has happened before and what is taking place now,and gain insights into two vastly different worlds defined by languages.
Essentially,a qualified translator is one who can see beyond what is obvious into what underlies linguistic forms.In some cases,it does take great pains to find the right equivalent or make sense of the target language.That is when translation can be truly tricky or frustrating.
For translation learners,we must keep searching far and wide,high and low, and have the insatiable desire to venture into uncharted territory of knowledge.
So,keep yourself well-informed and up to date.

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