1. 语言的普遍特征：
任意性arbitrariness
双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构
多产性productivity
移位性displacement：我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西
文化传播性cultural transmission
2。语言的功能：
传达信息功能informative
人济功能：interpersonal
行事功能：Performative
表情功能：Emotive
寒暄功能：Phatic
娱乐功能recreational
元语言功能metal lingual
3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支
语音学Phonetics
音位学phonology
形态学Morphology
句法学syntax
语义学semantics
语用学pragmatics
4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure
提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky
提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance
1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:
a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain language
b. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.
c. we can u se language to refer to something not present
d. we can produce sentences that have never been heard befor
e.
2.What is the most important function of language?
a. interpersonal
b. phatic
c. informative
3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __
a informative
b. phatic
c. directive
d. performative
4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __
a saussure
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
4. The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes. Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
expressed翻译Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer. II. Phonetics(语音学）
1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.
2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）
3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)
III. Phonology（音韵学）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.
2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment.
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.
IV. Morphology（词法）
1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）
2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.
3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.
4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.

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