D ISCOURS
E M ARKERS
Discourse means “pieces of language longer than a sentence.” Some words and phrases are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can show the connection between what a writer has been discussing, what was previously written and what will be written; they can help to make clear the structure of what is being written; they can indicate what a writer thinks about what has been written or about someone else’s viewpoint. There are a very large number of these “discourse markers”, and it is impossible to give a complete list in a few pages. Here are some of the most common examples. Some of these words and expressions have more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary. Some of these markers are used mostly in informal writing; others are more common in a formal style. Note that a discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause. Also, some of these markers begin independent clauses, and others only begin dependent clauses. Your teacher can go over those distinctions in class. Right now, just focus on the main use of each type of expression.
F ocusing and Linking
With ,
<,
,
As is concerned,
,
These expressions focus attention on what is going to be written, by announcing the subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by referring back to what was discussed before.
With reference to is a very formal expression used mainly at the beginning of
business letters: “With refe rence to your letter of September 17, I would
like to ”
Regarding can come at the beginning of a piece of discourse: “Regarding
the data achieved in the previous round ”
and As is concerned usually signal a change of subject
by the writer: “There are no problems with production. Now as regards
marketing, I think the best thing ” “There are no problems with
production. As far as marketing is concerned, I think the best thing ”
As for usually signals a lack of interest, a strong difference of opinion with
someone, or dislike for something or someone: “As for the opposing
viewpoint, it has been adequately demonstrated that there is little merit in its
argument.”
♦B alancing Contrasting Points
On the other hand,...
<
<discourse
These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do not necessarily contradict each other.
“Arranged marriages are common in many Middle Eastern countries. In the
West, on the other hand, they are unusual.”
“I like spending my holidays in the mountains, while/whereas my wife
prefers the seaside.”
“While/whereas some languages have 30 or more different vowel sounds,
others have five or less.”
♦E mphasizing a Contrast
However,...
Nevertheless,...
Still,...
<
In ,
However and nevertheless emphasize the fact that the second point contrasts
with the first. Nevertheless is very formal: “Britain came last in the World
Children’s Games again. However, we did hav e one success, with Annie
Smith’s world record in the first race of the day.”
Still introduces the contrasting point as an afterthought: “I don’t like the job
much. Still, the money’s okay.
Yet, still, and in can be used to suggest that something is surprising,
in view of what has been written before: “He says he’s a Socialist, and yet
he owns three houses and drives a Rolls.” “The train was an hour late. In
spite of this, I still managed to get to the meeting in time.” “I still managed to
g et to the meeting in time.”
♦S imilarity
Similarly,...
In the same way,...
These expressions are more common in a formal style.
“The roads are usually very crowded at the beginning of the holiday season.
Similarly, there are often serious traffic jams at the end of the holidays.”
“James Carter did everything he could to educate his children. In the same
way, they in turn put a high value on their own children’s education.”
C oncession and Counter-Argument
Concession:
It
<
<
<
Counter-Argument:
However,...
Even so,...
<
Nevertheless,...
Nonetheless,...
All the same,...
Still,...
These expressions are used in a three part structure: (1) the writer mentions facts that point in a certain direction, (2) it is agreed (the concession) that a particular contradictory fact points the other way, (3) but the writer dismisses this contradiction and returns to the original argument.
“I cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British may have done
so me good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.”
“He is incapable of lasting relationships with women. Certainly, several
women loved him, and he was married twice. All the same, the women
closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.”
“Very few people understood Einstein’s theory. Of course, everybody had
heard of him, and a fair number of people knew the word ‘relativity’, but
hardly anybody could tell you what he had actually said.”
“It was a successful party. The Scottish cousins, if a lit tle surprised by the
family’s behavior, were nonetheless impressed by the friendly welcome they
received.”
“I’m glad to have a place of my own. It’s true it’s a bit small and it’s a long
way from the center and it does need many repairs done. Still, it’s home.”
♦C ontradicting
On the contrary,...
The expression is used when a writer wants to strengthen a negative statement just made.
“She did not allow the accident to discourage her. On the contrary, she began
to work twice as hard.”
“The lecture was no t at all interesting. On the contrary, it was a complete
waste of time.”
♦D ismissal of Previous Discourse
Anyway,...
Anyhow,...
At any rate,...
These expressions can be used to mean “What was written before doesn’t matter; the main point is as follows.” Anyway and anyhow are very informal expressions.
“I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive, maybe half past seven or a quarter of
eight. Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, I’ll certainly be there before eight.”
“What a terrible experience! Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, you’re safe; that’s
the main thing.”
At least can suggest that one thing is certain or all right, even if anything else
is unsatisfactory: “The car’s completely smashe up. I don’t know what
we’re going to do. At least nobody was hurt.”
♦T ime or Logical Sequence
First, Firstly, First of all,...
Second, Secondly,...
Third, Thirdly,...
Lastly,...
Finally,...
To begin with,...
To start with,...
In the first/second/third place,...
<
For one thing,...
For another thing,...
We use these expressions to more firmly root the reader to ideas that are connected by order of importance, order of logic, or by chronology. Firstly, secondly, and thirdly are more formal than first, second, and third, and are more commonly used in British than American English.
“First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need to find work s,
and third(ly), we ”
“There are three reasons why I don’t want to dance with you. To start with,
my feet hurt. For another thing, you can’t dance, and thirdly, this music is
giving me a headache.”
“Twins or triplets can be formed during the division of the fertilized egg.”
“During the Cultural Revolution, many young people were sent to the
countryside.”
A dding
Moreover,... (very formal)
Furthermore,... (formal)
In addition,...
As well as that,...
On top of that,... (informal)
Another (informal)
What is more,...
Besides,...
In any case,...
These expressions can be used to add information to what has already been written.
“The Prime Minister is unw illing to admit that he can ever be mistaken.
Moreover, he is totally incapable of admitting that his associates are ever in
the wrong.”
“The peasants are desperately short of food. In addition, they urgently need
doctors and medical supplies.”

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