第7章语篇分析
7.1复习笔记
本章要点：
1.Discourse and discourse analysis
语篇及语篇分析
2.Given and new information
已知信息与新信息
3.Cohesion and coherence
衔接与连贯
4.Conversational analysis
对话分析
常考考点：
语篇及语篇分析的定义；已知信息与新信息的异同；衔接手段包括指称、替代、省略、连接与词汇衔接；语篇标记的定义与特征；对话分析中的配组会话、偏好结构及前序列；批判性语篇分析。
本章内容索引：
I.Definition of discourse and discourse analysis
II.Information structure
1.Given and new information
2.Topic and comment
3.Contrast
III.Cohesion and coherence
1.Cohesion.
(1)Reference
(2)Substitution
(3)Ellipsis
(4)Conjunction
(5)Lexical cohesion
2.Coherence
IV.Discourse markers
1.Definition
2.Functional-pragmatic nature
3.Features of discourse markers
V.Conversational analysis
1.Adjacency pairs
2.Preference structure
3.Presequences
VI.Critical discourse analysis
I.Definition of discourse and discourse analysis(语篇及语篇分析的定义)
1.Discourse(语篇)
A general term for examples of language language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations,and interviews.
泛指语言的运用，也就是说，语篇是人们进行交流的产物。它指更大的语言单位比如段落、对话、采访等。
2.Discourse analysis(语篇分析)
The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs,conversations,and interviews.
研究句子在口语及书面语中如何构成有意义的语言单位比如段落，对话，采访等。II.Information structure(信息结构)
1.Given and new information(已知信息与新信息)
Given information is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee, while new information is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.
New information is commonly expressed in a more elaborate fashion,for example,with a full noun phrase instead of a pronoun.In contrast,given information is commonly expressed in more attenuated ways-ways that are abbreviated or reduced.Typical attenuating devices include pronouns and unstressed noun phrases.
已知信息是指说话者认为听话者已经知道的信息，而新信息是指说话者认为听话者不知道的信息。
新信息通常以详尽的方式表述，例如，用完整的名词短语而不是代词。相比较而言，已
知信息以更加简洁的方式表达——即简短或精简的方式。典型的简洁表达有代词和非强调性的名词短语。
2.Topic and comment话题与述题
discourse【考点：名词解释】
(1)Definition定义
The topic represents what the utterance is about;the comment is what is said about it.
话题是谈话的主题，述题是围绕主题所谈论的内容。
(2)Differences with given-new information话题与述题的区别
The given-new distinction depends on the point of view of the listener,whereas the topic-comment distinction relates to that of the speaker.
已知信息与新信息的区别在于听话者一方，而话题与述题的区别在于说话者一方。
3.Contrast(对比)
A noun phrase is said to be contrastive when it occurs in opposition to another noun phrase in the discourse.Here,for example,the noun phrase John in Speaker B’s answer is contrasted with the noun phrase Tom.
A:Did Tom see the ghost?
B:No,John did.
在语篇中，当一个名词短语与另一个名词短语意义正好相反时，则他们被叫做对比。例如，B的话就是与Tom这个名词短语成对比。
A:Tom见过鬼吗？
B：没有，John见过。
III.Cohesion and coherence(衔接与连贯)
【考点：衔接与连贯的区别】
1.Definition of cohesion.(衔接的定义)
Cohesion is an important field of study in discourse analysis.It refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse.This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.
衔接是语篇分析中的一个重要研究领域。它是指语篇中不同要素间的语法与(或)词汇关系。也许是不同句子间的相互关系，也可能是一个句子中不同部分间的关系。
2.Cohesive divices(衔接手段)
(1)Reference(指称)
A very common cohesive device is the use of reference words which include it,they,he,she,them,etc.),demonstratives(this,that,these,those),the article the,and items like such as.
Reference consists of two types:One is endophoric reference(endophora),where the referent lies in the prior text;the other is exophoric reference(exophora),where the referent lies in the text to come.
最常用的衔接手段就是指称词汇的运用，包括代词(如它、他们、他、它等)，指示代词(这个、那个、这些、那些)，定冠词the，还有像such as这样的短语。
指称包括两种类型：一种是内参照，其所指在上文中，另一种是外参照，其所指在其下文中。
(2)Substitution(替代)
The process or result of replacing one word by another at a particular position in a structure is called substitution.
There are three types of substitution,that is,nominal(to replace a noun or noun phrase), verbal(to replace a verb phrase)and clausal(to replace a clause)substitution.
用一个词代替另一个词在结构中的位置的过程或结果叫做替代。
替代有三种类型，分别是，名词替代(替代名词或名词性短语)，动词替代(替代一个动词短语)及从句替代(替代一个从句)。
(3)Ellipsis(省略)
Ellipsis is to leave out a word or phrase of a sentence for reasons of economy,emphasis or style,and the omitted parts can only be recovered by the reader from the previous discourse.
There are three types of inal,verbal and clausal.
省略是指为了简洁，强调或风格而省去句子中的词或短语，并且读者可以在前文中到省略的部分。
省略有三种类型：名词省略、动词省略、从句省略。
(4)Conjunction(连接)
Conjunction refers to an item or a process whose primary function is to connect words or other constructions.In the example,“I was not invited.Otherwise,I would have been there”,the two clauses are connected by the cohesive conjunction otherwise.
There are three types:coordinating and,or,but),subordinating because,when,unless)and adverbial words(however,moreover,indeed, nevertheless).
连接是指具有连接词汇或其他结构的功能的词。
连接有三种类型：并列连词(和、或、但)，从属连词(因为、当……时、除非)还有些作状语的词(然而、另外、确实、不过)。
(5)Lexical cohesion(词汇衔接)
Lexical cohesion is the lexical device that can cross short or large pieces of the discourse. There are following three types:
①Repetition
②Synonym
③Superordinate
词汇衔接是指用词汇将语篇中的不同部分连接起来。有以下三种类型：
①重复
②同义词替代
③上位词替代
3.Coherence(连贯)
Coherence is the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.
连贯是指话语或篇章中句子的意义的连接关系。
IV.Discourse markers语篇标记
1.Definition定义
Discourse markers are the expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an
utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.
语篇标记是指通常用在句首或与句子结构联系不紧密的词汇表达。
2.Functional-pragmatic nature语用功能的特质
(1)In narratives
In narratives,it is very common to find discourse markers as part of the temporal strategy of discourse,that is,of the presentation of new events as occurring later in time than those already narrated.
(2)In non-narratives
In non-narrative texts,discourse markers have the function of bracketing discourse.
(1)记叙文中
在记叙文中经常能够发现语篇标记在语篇中以时间性的词汇出现，即用在陈述即将发生的事情。
(2)非记叙文中
在非记叙文中，语篇标记有把整个语篇连接在一起的功能。
3.Features of discourse markers(语篇标记的特征)
(1)They do not belong to the sentence elements proper(subject,verb,complement);
(2)They are typically found in utterance initial position or,on the whole,in transitional locations(beginning and end of units);
(3)They do not always have a clear propositional(semantic)meaning or their propositional meaning is superseded by their discoursal functions;
(4)They assume multiple roles in signaling relations(ideational,textual,and interpersonal) between units at different levels.
(1)语篇标记不属于句子本身结构划分中的成分(主语、谓语、补语)；
(2)语篇标记通常出现在句首或，在整篇中的过渡性的位置(句首或句末)；
(3)语篇标记通常没有明确的命题(语义)意义，其意义被他们的篇章功能所取代；
(4)语篇标记在不同层次的单位间标记关系时可有多种角(概念、语篇及人际)。
V.Conversational analysis(会话分析)
1.Adjacency pairs(配组会话)
【考点：名词解释】

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