Chapter 3    Lexicon
3.1 What is Word?
As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything
.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”
reference: 指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）
Sense: 词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）
(1)A physical definable unit
Language is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses
and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks. For example: It is wonderful.
Phonological: /it is wandәful/
Orthographic: it’s wonderful
(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term
Word may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:
Write/writes/wtote/writing/written
(3) A grammatical unit
The grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them.  ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)
Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme
3.1.2 Identification of words
(1) Stability: A word can’t be rearranged, but a sentence can.
Word:    nothingness  **nessnothing(F)
Sentence:  a. John is a clever boy
          b. A clever boy John is
(2) Relative uninterruptibility: A word can’t be separates or inserted with other elements, but a sentence can.
Word:    disappointment  *dis(#)appoint(#)ment
Sentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.
(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.
Expression:  ---Is Jane coming this evening?
          --- Possibly
Exception:  ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog is barking ”
          ----- A
3.1.3 Classification of Word
(1) Variable and invariable words
Word including ①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g. follow/follows/followed/following)
                ②invariable words (not having inflective changes. E.g. since, when, hello)
(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）
①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly work for constructing gro
up, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such as conj., prep, articles, pron..
②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.
(3) Closed- class and opened-class words
①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, this kind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such as pronouns, prep, articles and others.
②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle or unlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.
③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)
(4) Word class
⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, and article.
⑵other word classes:
①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”
②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems
③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did); pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)
④Determiners(限定词)：
a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twice
b. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, your
c. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)
3.2 The Formation of Word
3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology
    ①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.
    ②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. It studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
3.2.2 Types of Morphemes
  (1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme
    sort of house翻译 ①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)
    ②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis, -ed)
  (2) Root, affix, and stem
    ①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyed without destroying its meaning
      (NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.
b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive in conceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.

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