Lesson Four  Court System
※ Why Are There Two Court Systems in the United States?
    The U.S. Constitution created a governmental structure for the United States known as federalism. Federalism refers to a sharing of powers between the national government and the state governments. The Constitution gives certain powers to the federal government and reserves the rest for the states. Therefore, while the Constitution states that the federal government is supreme with regard to those powers expressly or implicitly delegated to it, the states remain supreme in matters reserved to them. 
    Both the federal and state governments need their own court systems to apply and interpret their laws. Furthermore, both the federal and state constitutions attempt to do this by specifically spelling out the jurisdiction of their respective court systems.
    For example, since the Constitution gives Congress sole authority to make uniform laws concerning bankruptcies, a state court would lack jurisdiction in this matter. Likewise, since th
e Constitution does not give the federal government authority in most matters concerning the regulation of the family, a federal court would lack jurisdiction in a divorce case. This is why there are two separate court systems in America. The federal court system deals with issues of law relating to those powers expressly or implicitly granted to it by the U.S. Constitution, while the state court systems deal with issues of law relating to those matters that the U.S. Constitution did not give to the federal government or explicitly deny to the states.
※ Describe the Differences in the Structure of the Federal and State Court Systems.
Ⅰ. Federal Court System
  A. Article III court.
(1) the U.S. District Courts 
There are 94 U.S. District Courts in the United States. Every state has at least one district court, and some large states, such as California, have as many as four. Each district court
has between 2 and 28 judges. The U.S. District Courts are trial courts, or courts of original jurisdiction. This means that most federal cases begin here. U.S. District Courts hear both civil and criminal cases. In many cases, the judge determines issues of law, while the jury (or judge sitting without a jury) determines findings of fact.
(2) the U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeal
    There are 13 U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeal in the United States. These courts are divided  into 12 regional circuits and sit in various cities throughout the country. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (the 13th Court) sits in Washington. With the exception of criminal cases in which a defendant is found not guilty, any party who is dissatisfied with the judgment of a U.S. District Court (or the findings of certain administrative agencies) may appeal to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeal in his/her geographical district. These courts will examine the trial record for only mistakes of law; the facts have already been determined by the U.S. District Court. Therefore, the court usually will neither review the facts of the case nor take any additional evidence. When hearing cases, these courts usually sit in panels of three judges.
(3) the U.S. Supreme Court.
    The Supreme Court of the United States sits at the apex of the federal court system. It is made up of nine judges, known as justices, and is presided over by the Chief Justice. It sits in Washington, D.C. Parties who are not satisfied with the decision of a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeal (or, in rare cases, of a U.S. District Court) or a state supreme court can petition the U.S. Supreme Court to hear their case.
    The Court decides whether to accept such cases. Each year, the Court accepts between 100 and 150 of the some 7,000 cases it is asked to hear for argument. The cases typically fit within general criteria for oral arguments. Four justices must agree to hear the case (grant cert).
(4) Special Article III Courts:
  (a) the U.S. Court of Claims (美国索赔法院) This court sits in Washington, D.C., and  handles cases involving suits against the government. ;
  (b) the U.S. Court of International Trade. This court sits in New York and handles cases involving tariffs and international trade disputes.
B. Special Courts Created by Congress  
Magistrate judges: These judges handle certain criminal and civil matters, often with the consent of the parties.
Bankruptcy courts: These courts handle cases arising under the Bankruptcy Code.
U.S. Court of Military Appeals: This court is the final appellate court for cases arising under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
U.S. Tax Court: This court handles cases arising over alleged tax deficiencies.
U.S. Court of Veterans' Appeals: This court handles certain cases arising from the denial of veterans' benefits.
sort out the factsⅡ.State Court Systems
  No two state court systems are exactly alike. Nevertheless, there are sufficient similarities to provide an example of what a typical state court system looks like. Most state court systems are made up of:

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