sort out同义短语英汉语言对比-10-Substitutivevs-Repetitive
I. English: Substitutive
•    “The same word should not be so often used in the same sentence or paragraph that it becomes tedious.”--- R. Graves & A. Hodge The Reader Over Your Shoulder（肩负读者 ）
•    “Unnecessary repetition of a word is irritating to a reader. If it can be avoided in a natural way it should.”—E. Gowers
◆Devices used in English to avoid repetition:
1. Substitution
◆“Like ellipsis, substitution is a device for abbreviating and for avoiding repetition.”—R. Quirk
•    1) nominal substitution
•    2) verbal substitution
•    3) clausal substitution
1) nominal substitution
•    The replacement of nouns or noun phrases with pronouns or some other nouns ;
•    Third-person pronouns: he, she, they, it;
•    Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those;
•    Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, which;
•    Conjunctive pronouns: who, whom, whose, what, which;
•    Indefinite pronoun: all, each, every, both, either, neither, one/ones, none, little, few, several, many, much, other, another, some, any, no;
•    Nouns: enough, half, the same, the kind, the sort, the former, the latter;
E.g.
    Translation from English into Chinese is not so easy as that from English into French.
    A chemical change is one in which the structure of particles is changed and a new substance is formed.
•    He hated failure; he had conquered it all his life, risen above it, and despised it in others.
••    我们的民族再也不是一个被人侮辱的民族了。
••    我们提倡和平共处的原则，这项原则目前在世界上已越来越得人心了。
2) verbal substitution
•    Pro-verb（代动词）: Do;
•    Compound pro-verbs: do so, do it, do that, do this, do the same;
•    替代句型: so+do+subject, so+subject+do, so+be+subject, so+subject+be, so+will+subject, so+subject+will, etc.
E.g.
    The Americans are reducing their defense expenditure this year. I wonder if the Russians will do too.
    You don’t want to lag behind. Neither does she.
•    You should help him since you have promised to do so.
••    He never really succeeded in his ambitions. He might have done, one felt, had it not been for the restlessness of his nature.
3) clausal substitution
•    People believe that the American team will win the football game. Peter thinks so, but I believe not.
••    They say he will come tonight. If so, the meeting will be held tomorrow. / If not, there won’t be any meeting tomorrow.
••    成绩有两重性，错误也有两重性。
•    一个人的工作，究竟是三分成绩七分错误，还是七分成绩三分错误，必须有个根本的估价。
2. Ellipsis
•    Ambition is the mother of destruction as well as of evil.
••    Reading exercises one’s eyes; speaking, one’s tongue; while writing, one’s mind.
•    近朱者赤，近墨者黑。
•    一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。
3. Variation
•    English often uses synonyms or near-synonyms, super-ordinates, hyponyms or general words to avoid repetition, while Chinese usually repeats the same word(s).
E.g.
    He selected and arranged one hundred sayings popular at home and abroad on the subject of friendship. Its popularity needs no explanation, for a brief perusal of the quotations shows that they embody the notions of civilized friendship. The maxims stress selflessness.
    John’s bought himself a new Ford. He practically lives in the car.
    An electron tube is generally used for amplification, and vacuum tube is another name for this device.
  The monkey’s most extraordinary accomplishment was learning to operate a tractor. By the age of nine, the monkey had learned to solo on the vehicle.
    非洲人民正在为争取非洲的彻底解放进行着艰巨的斗争。
    该做些什么来调节和控制海底开发，这一问题早已不再是理论问题，而是全世界关注的问题。
II. Chinese: Repetitive
◆Reiterative devices used in Chinese:
•    1. Reduplication
•    2. Repetition
•    3. Antithesis and Parallelism
1. Reduplication（重叠）
•    Only a very slight and very scattering ripples of half-hearted hand-clapping greeted him.
••    The road was packed with a noisy crowd of men and women, who were selling and buying all kinds of things.
••    房间空空荡荡，他走来走去，这儿停停，那儿停停，东摸摸，西瞧瞧。
2. Repetition
•    不懂就是不懂，不要装懂。
••    想喝就喝，想吃就吃，别客气了。
•    沉默呵，沉默呵！不在沉默中爆发，就在沉默中灭亡。
3. Antithesis and Parallelism
•    Chinese antithesis（对偶） consists of two balanced structures that are matched in sound and sense; parallelism（排比） uses three or more parallel phrases or sentences of relevant meanings and similar structures.
E.g.
•    人多力量大，柴多火焰高。
••    画虎画皮难画骨，知人知面不知心。
••    沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌
••    用点画成线，用线画成平面，用平面画成立体。

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