On Discourse  
一、篇章的联结手段
篇章连贯性在会话中有一条重要规则，A, B两方的话段的语义必须连贯，这是因为连贯是会话深层结构的无形网络，是话段之间的有机联系。实现连贯的方法很多，常见的有：衔接手段，语义、语用、认知原则，实义切分法，篇章连接手段等都可达到话语连贯的目的。
    A: Why isn’t John here today? Is he ill?    B: Yes, he is. He has a cold.
A, B的话段是连贯的，有很多连接方式在起作用：1）he指代John; 2) 用yes回答是非问题；3）he is后省了ill; 4) 问句Is he ill 和答句He has a cold.在语义上联系紧密，ill和cold在这里可以看做是复现关系；5）He has a cold.在语义上与Why isn’t John here today? 关系密切，前者可看作是后者的答语(提供原因）, 在此例中连接的方法有语法手段（照应、省略关系）、词汇衔接（复现关系）和语义、语用意涵等。以下将就这些连接方法分别作出说明。
（一）语法联结手段 (grammatical device）
1、时间关联成分（time relator）      2、地点/空间关联成分（place relator）
3、照应（reference）                4、替代（substitution）
5、省略（ellipsis）                  6、时和体（tense and aspect）
7、形成的配合和排列结构（parallel construction）
1、时间关联成分（time relator）指先时性（earlier time）、同时性 (same time)、后时性（later time）的词语
1）先时性词和短语：
（adj.）earlier, former, preceding, previous, prior
    （adv.）earlier, formerly already, before, beforehand, first, previously
      (phrase) before that/this/now/then, up to now/then, by now/then, until now/then
He handed in a good essay. His previous essays were all poor. (previous起连接句子的作用)
I shall explain to you what happened. But first I must give you a cup of coffee. (first=before I explain to you what happened.)
2）同时性词和短语：
(adj.) contemporary, simultaneous, concurrent
(adv.) concurrently, meanwhile, meantime, here, now, presently, simultaneously, then throughout, etc.
(phrase) at this point, in the meantime, in the meanwhile
3）后时性词和短语：
      (adj.) following, later, next, subsequent
(adv.) after, afterwards, finally, immediately, last, later, next, since, subsequently, suddenly, then, etc.
(phrases) after this/that, at some later hour
I left at and he was almost asleep. But at some later hour he must have lit a cigarette.
2、地点/空间关联成分（place relator）指表示位置（location），方向（direction），地点（place）的词语。 如：above, adjacent to, around, before, below, beyond, beneath, close to, down, further, here, in front of, nearby, next to, near to, on the left(right), opposite, on top of, over, under, up, etc.
On Tuesday evening, I was at the front door talking to a caller. Suddenly we heard a crash and two cars collided just opposite. We hurried across to see if we could help. One driver was scrambling out bleeding profusely, and my visitor helped him over to the pavement. Then along came some people, running up the street. I dashed back in and phoned for help. When I went out again, the other driver was trying to move his car down the road a little and in to the side.
3、照应（reference）指用代词等表示语义关系。照应关系可以分为两大类：一类是可以在语篇中到所指对象，称为内照应（endophora）, 内照应指语篇的语言项目之间的照应
关系，它又分前照应 (anaphora) 和后照应 (cataphora)；另一类是在语篇中不到所指对象，称为外照应（exdophora）, 外照应指语言项目的意义解释直接依存于语篇外客观环境中某个事物。
英语中的内照应用以下几种方法实现：
1）人称照应：用人称代词、所属限定词、所属代词来实现，但单数第一人称一般不能起照应作用。
2）指示照应：这类指示照应词可分三种（1）选择性指示词，如：this/ that/ these/ those
    transition用法搭配（2）定冠词, the（3）指示性副词, here/ there /now/ then
3） 比较照应：用adj.和adv.的比较级形式以及其他一些有比较意义的词语 (same, so, as, equal, such, similar/similarly, different/differently, other, otherwise, likewise, etc.）表示的照应。一般说来，表示异同，相似，差别，优质等词独具有照应的作用。
4）分句照应：指的是某些词语所指对象不是词或短语，而是分句，句子，句组或语篇。它可分三类：（1）here, it, this（既可用于前照应，又可用于后照应）
（2）that, the above, the foregoing (只用于前照应)
（3）as follows, the following, below, thus (只用于后照应)
5）其他词语的照应用法， the former…, the latter…
关于外照应，以下举例说明人称、指示、比较三种外照应的用法。
(1) Oh, how kind of you! May I open it now? 如果此例 是一个接受别人礼物的人在受礼后说的话，it便是外照应。
(2) Are they asleep? 如果这句话是一位男人指着他的孩子们的房门问妻子，那么they就是外照应。
4、替代（substitution）英语的替代分三类：
1）名词性替代（nominal substitution）, 如：one, ones, the same
2) 动词性替代（verbal substitution）通常由do的一定形式充当。（代动词do可以与so搭配作为一个单位。）
3）分句性替代（clausal substitution）这类词主要有so, not。如：
John hasn’t found a job yet. He told me so yesterday.
A: Can you come back next week?    B: I’m afraid not.
注：the same除了可用作名词性替代词外，有时还可以用来替代名词性分句。
A: I say Oxford is likely to win.    B: I say the same.
5、省略（ellipsis）省略可看做是一种特殊的替代—零替代。省略可分三类：
1）名词性省略
A: How many books would you like to have?  B: I’d like to have two (two books).
2）动词性省略
A: Have you been swimming?  B: Yes. I have (have been swimming).
    3）分句性省略
A: Are you going to town?    B: Yes.
A: Why is Mary so sad?  B: I don’t know why.
6、时和体（tense and aspect）在某些语篇中时和体形成交替使用可以表明动作或状态是过去还是现在，使受话人把握住叙述的线索，分清过去与现在的不同描写。
7、形成的配合和排列结构（parallel construction）排比结构指的是结构相同或相似，意思密切关联，语气一致的句子或词组成串排列的语言现象。由于排列结构形式整齐匀称内容联系紧密，念起来声调铿锵，所以有时它虽然没有明确指出列举事物的内在联系，但却能表达强烈的感情，能造成一种突出（foregrouding）, 能创造一种均衡美。
      If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? (W. Shakespeare)

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