1.Testing: Testing often takes the ‘pencil and paper’ form and it is usually done at the end of a learning period. The result is often expressed by a mark, a grade or a ratio.
2. Evaluation:comparisons Evaluation can be concerned with ‘a wide range of issues in and beyond language education: lessons, courses, programs, and skills can all be evaluated.’ It involves making an overall judgment about one’s work or a whole school’s work.
3.Bottom-up model: It follows a linear process from the recognition of letters to words, to phrases, to sentences, to paragraphs, and then to the meaning of the whole text.
4.Interactive model: During the reading process, our mind by interacting with the printed page---its words, phrases, sentences, as well as the context it provides can be stimulated and a proper schema will be activated to allow us to relate the incoming information to already known information.
5.Denotative meaning: Denotative meaning of a word or a lexical item refers to those words that we use to label things as regards real objects, such as a name or a sign, etc. i
n the physical world. This is usually the primary meaning of a word and may seem relatively easy to learn.
6. Collocations: Collocations refers to words that co-occur with high frequency and have been accepted as ways for the use of words. It is believed that teaching word collocations is a more effective way than just teaching one single word at a time.
7.Assessment: Assessment involves the collecting of information or evidence of a learner’s learning progress and achievement over a period of time for the purposes of improving teaching and learning. It is not based on one test or one task, nor is it expressed by a mark or grade, but rather in a report form with scales or levels as well as description and comment from the teacher.
8. Education: Education comes from the Latin verb educare, which means to ‘bring out’. In other words, teachers should try to bring out the full potential of their students as human beings, so they can live meaningful, fulfilling and responsible lives.
9. Top-down model: in teaching reading, the teacher should teach the background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page. This process of reading is said to follow the top-down model.
10.Total Physical Response: this method of teaching concentrates on learning language by listening and responding physically to commands or directions.
11. Connotative meaning: A connotative meaning of a word refers to ‘the attitudes or emotions of a language user in choosing a word and the inference of these on the listener or reader’s interpretation of the word.
12. Constructivist theory: constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows. John Dewey provided a foundation for constructivism. He believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities.
13. Receptive vocabulary: Receptive vocabulary refer to words that one is able to recognize and comprehend in reading or listening but unable to use automatically in speaking or writing.
14. The deductive method: The deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. First the teacher writes an example on the board or draws attention to an example in the textbook. Then the teacher explains the underlying rules. Sometimes comparisons are made. Finally the students practice applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts.
15. Critical Period Hypothesis: This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age (perhaps around puberty), then due to changes such as maturation of the brain, it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.
16. Open questions: Open questions may invite many different answers.
17. Cognitive theory: According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.
18. Higher-order questions: Higher-order questions require more reasoning, analysis, and evaluation.
19. Mistakes: A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a ‘slip of tongue’, and it is a failure performance to a known system.
20. A task: A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward.

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