Chapter 6
1. pragmatics:
自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)
术语：pragmatics语用学
解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.    语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：
Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through langu
age in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。 并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。语用学分析还探索着读者或听者对交流意义的推断。
2. Context:
自测：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.
   A. reference        B. speech act      C. practical usage       D. context
术语：Context 语境
解释：语义学和语用学的区别在于是否将语境考虑在内。
术语：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally
considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语用学研究的一个基本概念。一般认为语境包括说话者和听话者双方所共有的知识。
解释：
Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.  一般认为语境包括说话者和听话者双方所共有的知识：双方在他们所使用的语言方面的知识；双方对世界的认识，包括对世界总的认识和对正的进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。     
3. utterance meaning:
自测：The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. （T/F）
术语：utterance meaning    话语意义
解释：一个句子的话语意义是具体的、依赖于语境的。
术语：The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 话语意义是具体的、受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义，它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际语境中的实现，简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。
解释：It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
话语意义指的是人们在实际交谈中句子的含义，句子意义成为话语意义在于实际说话的环境是否被考虑在内。
4. sentence meaning:
自测：The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. （T/F）
术语：sentence meaning句子意义
解释：句子意义是抽象的，非语境化的。
术语：The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.  句子意义通常被看成是抽象的、非语境化的，从 命题角度看是句子本身所具有的内在特征。
解释： It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.句子意义指的是一个句子的意义或语法概念的意义。句子意义通常是根据橘子的谓语研究句子内在固有的意义。
5.   Constative:  叙述句
自测：  C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.
术语：Constative:  叙述句
解释：叙述句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证其真假。
术语：Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable.  叙述句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证其真假。
解释：Sentence like “I pour some liquid into the tube” is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into the tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences like this are called constatives. 像“I pour some liquid into the tube” 这样的句子是对说话人正在做的事情的描述。说话人不可能通过这几个词就把液体倒进试管里面，他必须同时真的施动，否则我们可以说他在撒谎，这样的句子就被称为叙述句。
6.   Performative:行为句
自测：P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.
术语：cooperativePerformative:施为句
解释：施为句既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
术语：Performatives, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.  They are the statements which are used to do something. 施为句是用来做事的，它的功能是施动一个特别的行为。施为句既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
解释：A performative is a sentence like “I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”, which does not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a performative sentence is, or is a part of the doing of an action. Verbs like “name” are known as performative verbs. 像“I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth” 这样的句子就被称为施为句。它们不是描写事物，没有真假。说出这样的句子就是，或者说至少部分是，实施一种行为，因此像“name”这样的词就被称为“施为动词”。

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