复习提纲：
What is translation and its essence？（什么是翻译和其本质？）
Translation is the expression in one language of what has been expressed in another language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalence. It is a kind of cross-language, cross-culture and cross society language activity. Its essence is the meaning explanation and transformation
翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确完整地重新表达出来的，跨语言，跨交际，跨社会的语言活动。其本质是释意，意义的转换。
types of translation（翻译的分类）
From the stand point of signs:  intralingual translation，interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation
从涉及的符号来看：语内翻译，语际翻译，符际翻译
From the stand point of the extent to which translation is done：full translation，partial translation and translation plus editing
从翻译的方法来看：全译，摘译，编译
From the stand point of way in translation is carried out：written interlingual translation，oral interlingual translation and machine translation
从翻译的手段来看：笔译，口译，机器翻译
From the stand point of the languages involved：native language into foreign language and foreign language into native language
从source language and target language的角度：本族语译外族语，外族语译本族语
From the stand point of the subject matter：professional translation（juristic and science writings）， literary translation（novel，poem and drama）and general translation
从翻译的题材来看：专业翻译（法律，科技文献），文学翻译（诗歌，散文，戏剧），一
般性翻译（各种应用文和新闻报道）
procedure of translation（翻译的过程）
accurate comprehension，adequate expression and testing（理解，表达，校核）
comprehension contains grammatical analysis，semantic analysis，stylistic analysis and discourse analysis理解分为：语法分析，意义分析，风格分析和语篇分析
adequate expression：literal translation，translation by ideas and both of them表达分为直译，意译和两者并用
criteria of translation（翻译的标准）
Alexander F. Tytler（亚历山大 F. 泰特勒）
（1）A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work（译作应完全复写出原作的思想）
（2）The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original（译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质）
（3）A translation should have all the ease of the original composition.（译作应具备原作具有的通顺）
Popular western criteria：equivalent value，equivalent effect and equivalent function（西方流行标准：等值，等效，功能对等）similarity in function and correspondence in meaning（功能相似，语义相符）
Fedorov（费德罗夫）
  The exactness of translation means the exact rendering of the thought and content of the original and performs the same rhetorical function as the original. （翻译等值理论）
Eugene Nida （尤金奈达）
  functional equivalence（功能对等）
  The crucial problem of translation is often stated in terms of conflict between formal correspondence and functional equivalence.
Yan Fu（严复）
  faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance（信达雅）译事三难，信，达，雅，求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则尚达焉。
Qian Zhongshu（钱钟书）
    sublimation（化境）the transmigration of souls  “Although the body changes, the soul of gesture remains its old self.”
Fu Lei（傅雷）
    similarity in spirit（神似）As far as the effect is concerned, translation should be like copying a painting. What is desired is not being alike in appearance but being alike in spirit
Lu Xun
    The minimum requirement for general translation should at least convey faithfully the content of the original with understandable smooth translation（凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一则当然力求其解，一则保留原作的风姿。宁信而不顺）
Liu Zhongdeliu（刘重德）
    faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness（信达切）
Lin Yutang（林语堂）
    The standard of faithfulness，smoothness and beauty（忠实的标准，通顺的标准，美的标准）
Xu Yuanchong（许渊冲）
    Beauty of meaning，beauty of sound and beauty of form 三美原则：意美，音美，形美
Luo Xinzhang（罗新章）
    Chinese traditional system：Source text orientation，seek for faithfulness，similarity in spirit and sublimation（中国传统翻译理论体系：案本，求信，神似，化境）
案本：文质之争到五四之后直译与意译之争
求信：严复的信达雅是我国现代影响最大的理论体系
Four-letter criteria faithfulness and smoothness （四字原则：忠实通顺）
忠实指忠实于原文的内容，风格。通顺指译文必须通俗易懂符合规范。二者相辅相成。
Functions of language（语言的功能）
Informative function(referential function)信息功能（所指功能）
Expressive function表情功能
Interpersonal function人际功能
Vocative function呼唤功能
Aesthesis function美感功能
Cognitive function认知功能
Metalingual function元语言功能
meaning（意义）
Connotation is also known as affecting meaning， refers to the emotive and associational aspects of a term.蕴含意义，也称为情感意义，指词内的情感和联想意义。
Denotation also known as a cognitive meaning，refers to the direct relationship between a term and the object，idea，or action it designates指称意义也称认知意义，指词与所指客体，思想或行为之间的直接关系
Or
词的确切和字面的意义strict and literal meaning
词的隐含意义implied or suggested meaning
Common translation method，strategy and skill常用翻译方法策略技巧
1.literal translation and free translation（直译与意译）：
conversion翻译方法的定义

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