Which of the following statement is NOT true? [大连外国语学院2008研]
A. Language is a means of vocal communication.
B. Language is instrumental.
C. Language is social and conventional.
【答案】B
二、判断正误
1. “Language operates by rules” is a fundamental view about language. [大连外国语学院2008研]
【答案】T
2. It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primeval language. [清华大学2000研]
【答案】F
3. Wherever humans exist, language exists. [对外经济贸易大学2006研]
【答案】F
三、简答题
Why is it difficult to define language? [北京第二外国语学院2004研]
【答案】It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.
四、论述题
Comment on the following topic: Definitions of language. [西安外国语学院2006研]
【答案】In fact, it is very difficult to give this question a satisfactory definition. The various definitions given to language so far have pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. The multi-faceted nature of language should be taken into consideration when it is defined.
(1) Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. If language were not systematic, it could not be learned or used consistently.
(2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word “book” and the thing we use to write with. The fact that different languages have different words for it speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language.
(3) This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.
(4) Language is primarily vocal, since that the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper.
(5) Language is human-specific; that is, it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. It is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.
Therefore, most linguists have agreed on such a definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
一、术语解释
1.Duality [北京交通大学2005研；西安交通大学2008研；四川大学2006研；武汉大学2007研；北京师范大学2003研]
【答案】Duality refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated there are two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words, etc.
); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.
2. Productivity (as a property of language) [武汉大学2004研；上海交通大学2006，2007研；四川大学2007研；北京交通大学2007研；大连外国语学院2008研]
【答案】It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of a finite set of rules. For example, I could make a sentence like “The man who is waiting for the lady who is talking to the boy who is playing with a girl…
is my uncle.”
3. define features [武汉大学2005研]
【答案】Define features, also called design features, refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish human language from any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission, and interchangeability.
4. displacement [四川大学2006，2008研；南开大学2004研；武汉大学2006，2008研；北京交通大学2006研]
【答案】Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, scientists can predict the “future” of certain planets that are several billions of light years away from us.
5. arbitrariness [四川大学2006研；上海交通大学2005研；南开大学2007研]
【答案】Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs be no natural relationship to t
heir meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, a conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. For example, it is unable to explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/.
二、简答题
Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? [南开大学2004研]
【答案】Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements—for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.
If language had no
such design feature, then it would be like animal communicational system which consists only a number of basic sounds, and this would be highly limited. Then we would not be able to produce a v
ery large number of sound combinations (e.g. words), which are distinct in meaning. In other words, the number of messages one can send would be restricted to the number of basic sounds.
三、论述题
Shakespeare has Juliet say：
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
What do the above lines say to you about the relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word in spoken language? Explain with positive evidence as well as exceptions from the English language. (15 points) [北外2004研]
【答案】The lines said above show that the relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word in spoken language is arbitrary in nature. That means there is no logical connection between forms (sounds) and meaning (concept). Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Sounds are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention.
In this example, the rose can be called by many names in different languages but its smell never changes. Another example, different languages have different forms for referring to ‘dog’ in English, such as Chinese ‘狗（gou）’ , French ‘chien (n.m.)’.
While language is arbitrary by nature, there are some exceptions as well. The best examples in English are the onomatopoetic words and compound words. For example, some onomatopoetic words ‘rumble’, ‘ crash’, ‘crackle’ ‘ bang’ are uttered like the sounds they describe, thus seem to have a natural basis. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example while ‘photo’ and ‘copy’ are both arbitrary, the compound word ‘photocopy’ is not entirely arbitrary, thus seem to be motivated. Anyhow, non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language.
四、选择题
1. By              we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. [西安外国语学院2006研]
a. arbitrariness    b. duality        c. creativity        d. displacement
【答案】c
2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? [西安交通大学2008研]
A. tree                  B. crash        C. typewriter      D. bang
【答案】A
3. Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? [大连外国语学院2008研]
A. Arbitrariness  B. Convention    C. Duality
【答案】B
五、填空题
1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the              it is associated with. [人大2007研]
【答案】meaning
2. The features that define o
ur human languages can be called              features. [北京第二外国语学院2006研]
【答案】design
3. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the            level are composed of elements of the            level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. [北京第二外国语学院2005，2006研]
【答案】primary, secondary
4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and C            of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. [大连外国语学院2008研]
【答案】Conventionality
六、判断正误
1． Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language. [清华大学2000研]
【答案】F (It is the exception of the arbitrariness of language.)
2. The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES. [大连外国语学院2008研]
【答案】T
3. According to Saussure, the relation between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary. [大连外国语学院2008研]
【答案】T
一、术语解释
1. Metalanguage[中山大学2008研；西安外国语学院2006研]
【答案】Metalanguage: It refers to a language used for talking about another language. For example, the semantic components like HUMAN, ADULT, MALE, belong to a meta-language, since in here they are used to explain the meaning of “man”.
2. Metalinguistic function[北京交通大学2006，2007研]
words【答案】It is the function of language that can be used to talk about language itself. For example, I can use the expression the word book to talk about the linguistic sign “book” itself.
3. performative function[武汉大学2004研]
【答案】The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons and it can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every day be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.
4. phatic function(communion) [武汉大学2005研；四川大学2007研]
【答案】phatic function. The phatic function of language refers to the use of the language which often consists of small, seemingly meaningless expression for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts rather than for exchanging information or ideas. For example, greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English could serve this function.
二、简答题
How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? [北京第二外国语学院2008研]
【答案】We
use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.
三、论述题
What are the seven functions of human language? [人大2006研；厦门大学2007研；浙江大学2003研]
【答案】According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions, and they are illustrated as follows:
1) Informative function. It means that language is the instrument of thought and language serves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as “This is a book.” are the typical illustration of this function.
2) Interpersonal function. The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society. It is the most important sociological use of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.
3) Performative function. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example,
in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.
4) Emotive function. The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, for example. God, My,

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