外文资料与翻译
PID Control
6.1  Introduction
The PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early governors and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process control today, more than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control. PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many different forms. There are standalone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly. PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many special purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems used for energy production, transportation, and manufacturing. Many sophisticated control strategies, such as model predictive control, are also organized hierarchically. PID control is
used at the lowest level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be said to be the “bread and butter of control engineering. It is an important component in every control engineer’s tool box.
PID controllers have survived many changes in technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a dramatic influence the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on microprocessors. This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain scheduling, and continuous adaptation.
6.2  Algorithm
We will start by summarizing the key features of the PID controller. The “textbook” version of the PID algorithm is described by:
                    6.1
where y is the measured process variable, r the reference variable, u is the control signal and e is the control error（e = − y）. The reference variable is often called the set point. The control signal is thus a sum of three terms: the P-term （which is proportional to the error）, the I-term （which is proportional to the integral of the error）, and the D-term （which is proportional to the derivative of the error）. The controller parameters are proportional gain Kcontroller翻译中文, integral time Ti, and derivative time Td. The integral, proportional and derivative part can be interpreted as control actions based on the past, the present and the future as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The derivative part can also be interpreted as prediction by linear extrapolation as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The action of the different terms can be illustrated by the following figures which show the response to step changes in the reference value in a typical case.
Effects of Proportional, Integral and Derivative Action
Proportional control is illustrated in Figure 6.1. The controller is given by D6.1E with Ti = and Td=0. The figure shows that there is always a steady state error in proportional control. The error will decrease with increasing gain, but the tendency towards oscillation will also increase.
Figure 6.2 illustrates the effects of adding integral. It follows from D6.1E that the strength of integral action increases with decreasing integral time Ti. The figure shows that the steady state error disappears when integral action is used. Compare with the discussion of the “magic of integral action” in Section 2.2. The tendency for oscillation also increases with decreasing Ti. The properties of derivative action are illustrated in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the effects of adding derivative action. The parameters K and Ti are chosen so that the closed loop system is oscillatory. Damping increases with increasing derivative time, but decreases again when derivative time becomes too large. Recall that derivative action can be interpreted as providing prediction by linear extrapolation over the time Td. Using this interpretation it is easy to understand that derivative action does not hel
p if the prediction time Td is too large. In Figure 6.3 the period of oscillation is about 6 s for the system without derivative Chapter 6. PID Control
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Derivative actions cease to be effective when Td is larger than a 1 s (one sixth of the period). Also notice that the period of oscillation increases when derivative time is increased.
A Perspective
There is much more to PID than is revealed by （6.1）. A faithful implementation of the equation will actually not result in a good controller. To obtain a good PID controller it is also necessary to consider。
Figure 6.3
∙Noise filtering and high frequency roll off
∙Set point weighting and 2 DOF
∙Windup
∙Tuning
∙Computer implementation
In the case of the PID controller these issues emerged organically as the technology developed but they are actually important in the implementation of all controllers. Many of these questions are closely related to fundamental properties of feedback, some of them have been discussed earlier in the book.
6.3 Filtering and Set Point Weighting
Differentiation is always sensitive to noise. This is clearly seen from the transfer function G(s) =s of a differentiator which goes to infinity for large s. The following example is also illuminating.
where the noise is sinusoidal noise with frequency w. The derivative of the signal is
The signal to noise ratio for the original signal is 1/an but the signal to noise ratio of the differentiated signal is w/an. This ratio can be arbitrarily high if w is large.
In a practical controller with derivative action it is there for necessary to limit the high frequency gain of the derivative term. This can be done by implementing the derivative term as
                        6.2
instead of D=sTdY. The approximation given by (6.2) can be interpreted as the ideal derivative sTd filtered by a first-order system with the time constant Td/N. The approximation acts as a derivative for low-frequency signal components. The gain, however, is limited to KN. This means that high-frequency measurement noise is amplified at most by a factor KN. Typical values of N are 8 to 20.

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