计算机外⽂翻译（完整）
毕业设计(论⽂)外⽂资料翻译
专业：计算机科学与技术
姓名：王成明
学号：06120186
外⽂出处：The History of the Internet
附件： 1.外⽂原⽂ 2.外⽂资料翻译译⽂；
server error翻译附件1：外⽂原⽂
The History of the Internet
The Beginning - ARPAnet
The Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means
of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."
By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.
ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.
By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.
In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with
NSF, who wanted to connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.
With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were
290,000.
Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.
Today - The Internet
Today, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.
HOW IT WORKS:
It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.
The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.
The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.
The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?
Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.
But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between one
computer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.
The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.
A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.
To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might view
a webpage.
1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.
2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.
3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.
Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.
4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leading
to the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).
5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.
6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.
The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.
With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.
Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html and MSIE can be found at www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html /ie.
The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.
Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self-explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable.
"Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.
Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.
A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.
A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not suppor
t. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.
E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.
To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail. Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.
After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.
An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus just
by reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.
A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.
Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.
A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.
Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.
Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.
Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).
There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?
Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.
1. Altavista (www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed
2. Yahoo (www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed Collection
3. Excite (www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed
4. Lycos (www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed
5. Metasearch (www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Multiple search
A web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.
An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.
Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.
Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.
With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.
The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.
The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As th
e user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone.
The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?
Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.
Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.
A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trilli
on possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of
14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.
附件2：外⽂资料翻译译⽂
Internet的历史
起源——ARPAnet
Internet是被美国政府作为⼀项⼯程进⾏开发的。这项⼯程的⽬的，是为了建⽴远距离之间点与点的通信，以便处理国家军事范围内的紧急事件，例如核战争。这项⼯程被命名为ARPAnet，它就是Internet的前⾝。建⽴此⼯程的主要应⽤对象就是军事通讯，那些负责ARPAnet的⼯程师们当时也没有想到它将成为“Internet”。
根据定义，⼀个“Internet”应该由四或者更多的计算机连接起来的⽹络。
ARPAnet是通过⼀种叫TCP/IP的协议实现连⽹⼯作的。此协议最基础的⼯作原理是：如果信息在⽹络中
的⼀条路径发送失败，那么它将到其他路径进⾏发送，就好象建⽴⼀种语⾔以便⼀台计算机与其他计算机“交谈”⼀样，但不注意它是PC，或是Macintosh。
到了20世纪80年代，ARPAnet已经开始变成⽬前更为有名的Internet了，它拥有200台在线主机。国防部很满意ARPAnets的成果，于是决定全⼒将它培养为能够联系很多军事主机，资源共享的服务⽹络。到了1984年，它就已经超过1000台主机在线了。
在1986年ARPAnet关闭了，但仅仅是建⽴它的机构关闭了，⽽⽹络继续存在与超过1000台的主机之间。由于使⽤NSF连接失败，ARPAnet才被关闭。NSF是将5个国家范围内的超级计算机连⼊ARPAnet。
随着NSF的建⽴，新的⾼速的传输介质被成功的使⽤，在1988年，⽤户能通过56k的电话线上⽹。在那个时候有28，174台主机连⼊Internet。到了1989年有80，000台主机连⼊Internet。到1989年末，就有290，000台主机连⼊了。
另外还有其他⽹络被建⽴，并⽀持⽤户以惊⼈的数量接⼊。于1992年正式建⽴。
现状——Internet
如今，Internet已经成为⼈类历史上最先进技术的⼀种。每个⼈都想“上⽹”去体验⼀下Internet中的信息财
富。成千上百的⼈都⽤Internet。预计，到了2003年世界上的每个⼈，都将拥有Internet接⼊。Internet已经真正成为我们这个年代⽣活的⼀部分。由于计算机技术和⽹络技术每天都在改变，我们很难想象
Internet下⼀步将发展成什么样⼦。
⼯作原理：
现在，⼈们⽤Internet是⼀件很平常的事。他们通过Internet进⾏购物、玩游戏、聊天等娱乐活动。
Internet不仅仅是⼀件事物。Internet也会崩溃。它的⼯作原理如同电话通信系统，只不过没有专门的Internet公司来经营Internet。
Internet是成千上万台计算机互相连接的集合。Internet就像是办公⽹络⼀样，不同的是，它有成千上万台计算机相连接。
其中最主要的是Internet是如何进⾏通信的。位于Houston的⼀台计算机是如何通过浏览⽹页⽽能与位于Tokyo的计算机进⾏数据通信的呢？
Internet信息，拥有信息的计算机连接到Internet，是基于语⾔。这种语⾔叫做TCP/IP。TCP/IP建⽴了⼀种语⾔，能使计算机在Internet系统中传送数据。
但是TCP/IP的取得也必须具备两台电脑之间的物理连接。当然也未必都是这样。但也必须存在⼀根⽹络线将主机与Internet连接起来，但做到这样，还是不可能与Internet连接的。
物理连接要求通过MODEM，电话线和其他类似MODEM的连接（如DSL）来建⽴。计算机上的MODEM通过已建⽴的通信线进⾏收发数据，通信线可以是电话线或是数据线。事实上计算机之间建⽴连接的硬核被成为路由器。
路由器就是计算机中进⾏信息交互的管理器。
为了更好的对它说明，让我们来看看⼀台标准的计算机是怎样浏览⽹页的？
1、⽤户计算机拨号进⼊ISP。⽽此ISP可能还要连接⼊其他ISP，或是直接进⼊Internet主⼲。
2、⽤户打开⽹页浏览器如NETSCAPE或是IE。
3、接下来是进⼊Internet的棘⼿部分。⾸先，⽤户计算机相路由器发出请求。路由器是⼀种⾼速⾼效的计算机运⾏的专门软件。世界上所有路由的连接便形成了Internet的主⼲，在这⾥传送Internet上的所有数据。⽬前主⼲⽹上的处理速度为每秒⼏千兆字节。这样的速度分配到⼀只MODEM上，就好⽐太阳光的热量分配到⼀块冰上的热量⼀样。
4、路由器发送或接受数据。它将⼀⼩段数据分别打包，形成数据报，就像包裹⼀样。因此，当请求⽹页浏览是，就⽤TCP/IP 协议告诉路由器如何处理这些数
据，将这些数据发送去哪⾥，⽤户主要想去哪⾥。
5、路由器将这些数据报发送给其他的路由器，最终转到⽬标主机上。就像传⽿语的游戏⼀样（当然，只有完整的信息才能被传送）。
6、当信息到达⽬标⽹页的服务器是，服务器就开始将⽹页信息发送回去。⼀台⽹页服务器，就是⽹页存储所在的计算机，它能对⽹页进⾏编辑，并将它发送给⽤户。⽹页被分成数据报，通过路由器，最终到达⽤户计算机，这样，⽤户就能浏览⽹页了。数据报中含有相关的数据以及⼀些必须的信息让路由器或其他计算机知道如何将数据报按正确的顺序重新组装成原始的数据段。
有了成千上万的⽹页和成千上万的⽤户，对于初学者来说使⽤Internet将不再那么容易，尤其是那些不太精通电脑的⼈。接下来，你将能到⼀些上⽹的⼩技巧和使⽤Internet主要服务的帮助。
在你打开⽹页之前，你必须有⼀个⽹页浏览器⽤于浏览⽹页。⼤部分⽹络服务商都会给⽤户提供⼀个⽹络浏览器。当你在浏览⽹页时，其实就是在使⽤浏览器。⽬前使⽤最⼴泛的⽹页浏览器是Netscape和MSIE。Netscape能⾃动连接到
www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ，MSIE能⾃动连接
www.doczj/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html 。
接下来你就必须熟悉如何使⽤⽹页。⽹页是超链接、图⽚、⽂本、表格、按钮以及多媒体的集合。只需点击⽹页提供的连接或是按照⽹页的步骤（⽐如，如果你需要⽤⽹页中的⼀张表，旁边就会有使⽤这张表的帮助）做，你就可以进⾏⽹上冲浪了。基本上，⽹页中的每个元素都可以⾃我移植。
“哦，不！⼜是404出错！‘不能到相关⽹页’”这是上⽹初学者中很普通的⾔论。

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