Division three: The Middle Ages
中世纪
1.What happened in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire?
After the Roman Empire lost its predominance, a great many Germanic Kingdoms began to grow into the nations know as England, France, Italy, and Germany in its place. These nations of Western Europe were in the scene of frequent wars and invasions. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives and village fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste. There was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. Christianity was almost the all and the one of Medieval lives in western Europe and took lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds years.
2.What were the cultural characteristics of the period from 500 to 1000?
Above all, the cultural characters of this period were the heritage and achievement of Roman
culture and the emergence of Hebrew and Gothic culture.
3.Who was Charles Martel?
Charles Martel was a Frankish ruler who gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their services in 732.
4.What was the relationship between lord and vassal?
Lords granted parts of their lands known as fiefs to vassals. In return, the vassals promised to fight for the lords.
5.Into what three groups were people divided under feudalism?
Under feudalism, people of their Western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords, and peasants.
6.solidityWhat was the different between a serf and a free man?
A serf had no land and no freedom. He was bond to the land where he had been born. A free man was a peasant who usually was a worker who made the ploughs, shod the horses, and made harnesses for oxen and horses.
7.What is the importance of the using of vernacular languages in Medieval literature?
In the Middle Ages, some “national epics” were written in vernacular language—the language of various national states that came into being at that period, and some monks advocated translating the Bible in vernacular. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture that was the combination of a variety od national characteristics.
8.In what ways did Gothic art differ from Romanesque art?
⑴Although Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, it was given directions by a different aesthetic and philosophical spirit and reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence.
⑵Romanesque architecture is characterized by massiveness, solidity, and monumentality with an overall blocky appearance. Sculpture and painting, primary in churches, developed a wonderful unity with architecture. Both arts often are imbued with symbolism and allegory. They are not based on natural forms but use deliberate distortions for expressive impact.
⑶Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arched and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures more lifelike than any since ancient Rome.
9.What was the merit which Charlemagne and Alfred the Great share?
Both Charlemagne and Alfred the Great contribution greatly to the European culture. Both of them encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools. The scholars in Alfred the Great’s monasteries translated the Latin works into the vernacular. Thus both helped preserve the ancient classics and culture.
Division four: Renaissance and Reformation
文艺复兴与宗教改革
1.What made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?
Because of its geographical position, foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to urban economy and helped Italy accumulate wealth which was an essential factor for the flowering of art and literature.
For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century, Florence was the golden city which gave birth to a whole generation of poets, scholars, artists and sculptors. There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and rising of humanist ideas. And to spread the new ideas, libraries and academies were founded. In the 15th century printing was invented and helped to spread humanist ideas.
2.What are the main elements of humanism? How are these elements reflected in art and literature during the Italian Renaissance?
Humanist is the essence of Renaissance. Humanists in renaissance believed that human beings had rights to pursue wealth and pleasure and they admires the beauty of human body. This belief ran counter to the medieval ascetical idea of poverty and stoicism, and shifted man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philosophy, from heaven to earth, from the beauty of God to the beauty of human in all its joy, senses and feeling.

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