less is more 翻译
Some Basic Concepts of Translation
I．Some controversial issues：
1. literal translation vs. free translation  直译还是意译
2. functional equivalence vs. formal correspondence  功能对等还是形式对应
3. content vs. form  重内容还是重形式
4. source-oriented vs. target-oriented  靠近原语还是靠近译入语
5. author-centered vs. reader-centered  以原作者为中心还是以译入语读者为中心
6. the purpose of the author vs. the purpose of the translator  原作者写作的目的还是译者翻译的目的
II．THE METHODS
  (Peter Newmark)
1. Word-for-word translation （逐字翻译）
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.
2. Literal translation （直译）
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
3. Faithful translation （忠实翻译）
A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words and pres
erves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer.
4. Semantic translation （语义翻译）
Semantic translation differs from ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on ‘meaning’ where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents-une nonne repassant un corporal may become ‘a nun ironing a corporal cloth’ – and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between ‘faithful’ and ‘semantic’ translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator’s intuitive empathy with the original.
5. Adaptation （改写）
This is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have ‘rescued’ period plays.
6. Free translation （自由翻译）
Free translation reproduces the mater without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called ‘intralingual translation’, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all.
7. Idiomatic translation （习语翻译）
Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.
(Authorities as diverse as Seleskovitch and Stuart Gilbert tend to this form of lively, ‘natural’ translation.
8. Communicative translation （交流翻译）
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.
III．The nature of translating
(Nida)
“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”
1. Reproducing the message
Translating must aim primarily at “reproducing the message”. To do anything else is essenti
ally false to one’s task as a translator. But to reproduce the message one must make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustments.
2. Equivalence rather than identity
The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproduction of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance.
3. A natural equivalent
The best translation does not sound like a translation. That is to say, it should studiously avoid “translationese” — formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the content and the impact of the message.
4. The closest equivalent
A conscientious translator will want the closest natural equivalent. It has been argued , for
example, that in present-day English a natural equivalent of “demon-possessed” would be “ mentally distressed.” This might be regarded by some as a natural equivalent, but it is certainly not the “closest equivalent”.
5. The priority of meaning
As it has already been indicated in the definition of translating, meaning must be given priority, for it is the content of the message which is of prime importance for translating. This means that certain rather radical departures from the formal structure are not only legitimate but may even be highly desirable.

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