⾼低语境跨⽂化交际
1 High context culture（⾼语境⽂化）：
Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context.（在⾼语境⽂化中，在⼈们交际时，有较多的信息量或者蕴涵在社会⽂化环境和情景中，或者内化于交际者的⼼中；相对地讲，明显的语码则负载较少的信息量。这也意味着，在强交际环境⽂化的⼈们对微妙的环境提⽰较为敏感。）
Low context culture（低语境⽂化）：
Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low context. （在低语境⽂化中，交际过程中所产⽣的信息量的⼤部分由显性的语码负载，相对地讲，只有少量的信息蕴涵在隐性的环境和情景中。这也意味着，在低语境⽂化中的⼈们习惯⽤语⾔本⾝的⼒量来进⾏交际。）
2 General Introduction to High-context and Low-context Cultures
include意思A nthropologist Edward T. Hall’s theory of high- and low-context culture helps us better understand the powerful effect culture has on communication. A key factor in his theory is context. This relates to the fra
mework, background, and surrounding circumstances in which communication or an event takes place.
High-context cultures (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business transaction. According to Hall, these cultures are collectivist, preferring group harmony and consensus to individual achievement. And people in these cultures are less governed by reason than by intuition or feelings. Words are not so important as context, which might include the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, posture—and even the person’s family history and status.
A Japanese manager explained his culture’s communication style to an American: ―We are a homogeneous people and don’t have to speak as much as you do here. When we say o ne word, we understand ten, but here you have to say ten to understand one. High-context communication tends to be more indirect and more formal. Flowery language, humility, and elaborate apologies are typical. Low-context cultures (including North America and much of Western Europe) are logical, linear, individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context cultures value logic, facts, and directness. Solving a problem means lining up the facts and evaluating one after another. Decisions are based on
fact rather than intuition. Discussions end with actions. And communicators are expected to be straightforward, concise, and efficient in telling what action is expected. To be absolutely clear, they strive to use precise words and intend them to be taken literally. Explicit contracts conclude negotiations. This is very different from communicators in high-context cultures who depend less on language precision and legal documents. High-context business people may even distrust contracts and be offended by the lack of trust they suggest.
3 Cross-cultural tips
跨⽂化交流中―语境⽂化的⾓⾊
⼀位受英⽂教育的新加坡公民的⼀位居于中国的长辈去世了，她代表⽗母到中国参加这位长辈的葬礼。临⾏前她母亲千叮万嘱，要她把⼀笔钱交给这位去世长辈的亲友，以表悼念⼼意。当她把钱⾯交有关亲友时，不料对⽅连连推拒。朋友见状，也就没有再坚持了。岂料回到新加坡后不久，就听到了亲友的隔海埋怨，责之不晓世事。惟到此时，她才明⽩了临⾏前母亲那⼏近执着的叮咛的真正含义。
⼀位会说中⽂的美国投资商⼈曾叹道，在与中国⼈共事时，不是⾃⼰的话常被别⼈误解，就是⾃⼰对别⼈的话语理解不到位。在今天跨⽂化交流的⼤环境下，这种沟通不畅的问题，相信对许多读者来说，并不陌⽣，它实际上是凸显了这样⼀个事实：在很多的情况下，⾔语交际的不畅，已不再仅仅是语⾔本⾝
的问题，⽽是与语⾔背后的⽂化背景和⽂化因素息息相关。
美国⼈类学家，语⽤学家爱德华〃T〃霍尔 (Edward T. Hall) 于1981年提出语境⽂化概念。在霍尔看来，不同民族在进⾏⾔语交际时，往往会不⾃觉地受到各⾃的⽂化背景、民族⼼理、思维定势和语⾔习惯的影响，⽽倾向于采⽤不同的语⾔运⽤和理解模式，这就形成了不同的语境⽂化。因此，他认为按照⾔语交际⽅式对语境的依赖程度，不同的⽂化其实可以被划分为⾼语境⽂化（high-context culture）和低语境⽂化（low-context culture）。这⾥所说的⾼低，并不涉及语⾔背后的⽂化、经济实⼒或者⽂化本⾝的素质，⽽是纯指不同⽂化在⾔语交际中对语境依赖程度的⾼低。今天，语境⽂化在跨⽂化交流中的制约作⽤，已为愈来愈多地的⼈所重视。语境⽂化之间的差异，为⼈们的⽂化交流开辟了许多新的领域，但也同时为⼈们的沟通设臵了不少客观障碍。因此，适当地了解不同语境⽂化的⾔语制约特征，对我们更好地进⾏⽂化交流和语⾔交际，可谓不⽆裨益。
不同语境⽂化的⾔语表达特点
下⾯，让我们再来看看不同语境⽂化的三个语⾔表达特点：
（⼀）⾔外之意
我们⾸先注意到是⾔语中传情达意成分的多寡。此处的传意成分不同于信息量：如果说信息量是指⾔语所传递的信息多寡的话，那么传意成分则偏重于信息背后的―意，即那⼀点点的⾔外之意。
举个例⼦：餐宴将毕，主⼈问客⼈：你吃饱了吗？客⼈对此话的理解和判断过程，实际上会因为主⼈所处的语境⽂化⽽呈现出不同的模式。若主⼈是⼀德国⼈，客⼈会因为德国⽂化属于低语境⽂化，⽽⾃然地单纯从字⾯上去理解这句问话，得出的结论是：―他想知道这顿饭的份量对我来说是否⾜够。若主⼈是⼀中国⼈，客⼈则会做出这样的判断：中国⼈的⽂化是⾼语境⽂化，因此这句问话中所包含的潜台词，也许会⽐词语的字⾯值⾼得多，其中不仅有不知这餐饭的份量够不够之疑，也可能有这餐饭是否合你⼝味、中国菜你是否喜欢吃、你对我的招待是否满意之问。此时，客⼈就可能选择这样回答：我对这顿饭很满意。中国菜好吃，我很喜欢吃中国菜。我也⾮常感谢你的盛情款待。如此⼀来，不同⽂化语境中对⾔语理解的负⾯制约因素就会被破解，沟通顺畅，宾主尽欢。因此，了解不同语境⽂化的传意成分，有助于我们更准确地判断对⽅⾔语的字⾯值和潜台词，并据此来调整⾃⼰的⾔语表达和理解模式。
（⼆）长话短听其次是⾔语交际中的⽤语量⼤⼩。⼈们可能会以为，低语境⽂化的⾔语交际全靠话语的字⾯意义来传递信息，因此⼈们在交际时就不得不使⽤更多的词语、更长的句⼦。其实不然。正如我们在前⾯所提到的，来⾃低语境⽂化的⼈倾向于使⽤传意成分⾼的词语，在遣词⽤字⽅⾯讲求精确、直接、不拐弯抹⾓，每⼀个词都能起到其实际的传意效果，因此他们的⽤语量并不⼤。反观⾼语境⽂化。由于⼈们使⽤的是传意成分偏低的⾔语表达⽅式，词语附带
的理解价值也就相对较低，因此⼈们可能得讲上好⼏个回合，兼⽤婉曲、双关甚⾄反语，才能间接勾勒出其⾔的理解背景。
正如前⽂所提及的，中国、⽇本⽂化都是⼀种谦让⽂化，⼈们不仅使⽤隐晦含糊的词语，⽽且在表达⽅式上也是迂迥暧昧的；没有⼏个回合，实⽆法捕捉其话语的本义所在。就是这样的⼀推⼀让，使得⽤语量⼤⼤增加，也同时加深了听话⼈准确捉摸⾔语真正含义的难度。
例如，⼀个美国⼈尝试⼏次邀请⼀位同路的⽇本朋友来家做客。刚开始的⼏次，在家门⼝简单寒暄之后，⽇本朋友会说―不⽤进去了之类的客套话。要待这位美国⼈再三提出邀请，促其不要客⽓之后，她才会说：―那我就不客⽓打扰了。刚开始时，美国⼈感到颇不习惯，但在其了解了⽇本特有的语境⽂化特征后，这⼀切⼜好像不难理解了。
因此，在对⽤语多寡有⼀个基本认识后，我们在与来⾃⾼语境⽂化的⼈交流时，就会尽量避免被那些⼤量的、看似⽆关紧要的词语弄昏头脑，就会懂得―长话短听、―抽丝剥茧，更关注于说话⼈内⼼的真正意向。这样⼀来，沟通畅顺⾃不在话下。
（三）―⾯⼦问题
再者，对社会地位和⾯⼦问题的考虑，也是⾼语境⽂化中不可或缺的重要部分。对于来⾃低语境⽂化的美国⼈、德国⼈来说，直接提出质问和提出异议，是解决问题的最佳⽅式。在他们看来，直接是对事不对⼈，因此不存在尊重与否的问题。然⽽，处于⾼语境⽂化的⽇本⼈、中国⼈，则不喜采⽤太过直接的⽅式去直斥对⽅的不是，认为此举会让⼈下不来台。尤其是⽇本⼈。即使他们不同意别⼈的观点，⼀般
也不会反驳，⽽总是退后多步，⽤迂回婉转的⾔辞道出⾃⼰的意思，让听话⼈往深⼀层去揣摩。在⽇本⼈看来，这种尊敬度⾼的举动，是⼀种有修养的表现，能给对⽅留下⾜够的反应余地，顾及到对⽅的⾯⼦。然⽽，这种退后多步的表达⽅式，有时却是诸多误会的开始。
事实上，直来直去的美国⼈，据说最怕的就是在商业谈判中与⽇本⼈交⼿，因为后者那种模棱两可的表达⽅式常让他们摸不着头脑。例如，为了表⽰对听话⼈的尊重，⽇本⼈在表⽰不要……的时侯，会⽤上―最好不要…….或做……的时候要考虑等等字眼。然⽽，听在处于低语境⽂化的美国⼈⽿⾥，这种拐弯抹⾓的说法并不等于―不要做，⽽是恰恰相反，是表⽰事情也许还有考虑的余地的意思。这⾥造成的歧义，不可谓不⼤。另⼀⽅⾯，来⾃⾼语境⽂化的⼈在顾及对⽅⾯⼦的同时，也极其希望从对⽅那⾥，得到同样的⾯⼦礼遇。了解这⼀点，对于来⾃低语境⽂化的⼈，包括欧美⼈⼠和受西⽅教育的新加坡⼈来说，尤为重要：与其说是雄辩滔滔、咄咄逼⼈，⼒求在⾔语⽤辞上压倒对⽅，不如采⽤同样的含蓄表达⽅式，加强⾃已⽤语的尊敬度，让对⽅感到你对他们的尊重和对其⾯⼦的照顾。能做到这⼀点，离交易的成功还会远吗？
什么是“⾼语境⽂化”和“低语境⽂化”？
从史表中，我们可以看到，⽇本、中国和中东诸国的⽂化均属⾼语境⽂化，⽽英美⽂化则属低语境⽂化。分属这两种不同语境⽂化的⼈在中国⼈相互沟通和交流时，会受各⾃的语境所制约⽽采⽤不同的语
⾔运⽤和理解模式，也会因此⽽⾯对许多沟通上的问题。在⾼语境⽂化中，说话⼈⽤含蓄婉转的⽅式间接地表达⾃已的意思，期待听话⼈不仅能依赖上下⽂来理解⾃⼰的话，更能根据特定的社会环境、历史条件、社会关系甚⾄是宗教因素，对说话⼈的意图作出正确的判断和理解。
在本⽂开头所⽰的例⼦中，我们可以看到，笔者新加坡朋友在中国的亲友们原是希望通过含蓄的推却⽅式，达到欲推还迎的表达效果，他们的思维⽅式和语⾔交际模式就是受着⾼语境中特定的谦让⽂化所制约，⽽这种交际⽅式在⼤陆的中国⼈之间，是很少会引起误解的。低语境⽂化则恰恰相反。说话⼈遣词⽤字的原则是直接、精确、易于理解。说话⼈所⾔之语的字⾯意思
与其背后的含义⼤致相等，故听话⼈⽆需结合太多的⽂化语境因素来揣摩、猜测说话⼈所要表达的意思。此外，处于低语境⽂化的⼈也希望对⽅能以直接的⽅式来理解⾃⼰所说的话。在上述例⼦中的美国商⼈，就是来⾃处于低语境的美国⽂化，其思维⽅式和对⾔语的理解和运⽤都基于西⽅的交际语境，习惯对说话⼈的⾔语作出字⾯上的判断，没有去深究字⾯背后的⼈情风俗、社会关系、社会地位等⼀系列的因素，⽽理解不到位的问题也就因此⽽产⽣了。
Cultural continuum, ranging according to the extent to which cultures depend on context 6.3.3 Comparisons between High-context Culture and Low-context Culture
a.
Examples of High- and Low-Context Cultures
Low-Context Cultures High-Context Cultures
Scandinavia Germany Switzerland North America Mediterranean Korea Vietnam Japan China Middle East Latin America
b.
Values of High- and Low-Context Cultures
Low-Context (Individualistic) High-Context (Collective)
Mastery over Nature
Personal Control over the Environment Doing Future Orientation
Change
Time Dominates
Human Equality
Youth
Self-Help
Individualism/Privacy
Competition
Informality Directness/Openness/Honesty Practicality/Effic iency
Materialism Harmony with Nature
Fate
Being
Past or Present Orientation
Tradition
Focus on Relationships Hierarchy/Rank/Status Elders
Birthright Inheritance
Group Welfare
Cooperation
Formality
Indirectness/Ritual/"Face" Idealism/Theory Spiritualism/Detachment
c.
CONTRASTING COMMUNICATION STYLES
U.S./Australian Low context Cultures
1. Get down to business first
2. Value expertise and performance
3. Negotiations as efficient as possible
4. Agreement by specific, legalistic contract
5. Motives directly expressed
6. Communication is explicit, verbal
7. Informal
8. Spontaneous
9. Emotionally expressive 10. Self-promoting and ego-centric
11. Short-term and symmetrical reciprocity
12. Personal and public relationships are often separate Traditional Asian High context Cultures
1. Establish social trust first
2. Value personal relations and goodwill
3. Negotiations slow and ritualistic
4. Agreement by general trust
5. Motives indirectly expressed
6. Communication is implicit, non-verbal
7. Formal
8. Goal-oriented
9. Emotionally controlled
10. Self effacing and modest
11. Long-term and asymmetrical reciprocity
12. Personal and public relationships often overlap
How to Determine Whether a Culture is High-context or Low-contex
Determining If a Culture Is High or Low context
High-Context Cultures Low-Context Cultures
e mphasize the need to dress nicely. Improper dress can insult the hosts or the occasion. Dress should also reflect your social standing. I
f you’re in a hot climate and people aren’t wearin
g shorts, they’re hig
h context. If teens and college students wear slacks instead of jeans, you’re in a high context culture. Are the women wearing high heels instead of comfortable sandals –even in the park? Then they’re high context!
A majority of t he verbal information is explicitly communicated. For example, an apology must be clearly articulated, whereas in a high-context culture the same message can be communicated through a variety of nonverbal gestures such as a smile, a sigh, a shrug, or a frown.
D irectness, openness, and honesty are valued, as is freedom of emotional
*h ave indirect communication styles. Meaning
can be found in many areas: symbolic gifts that indicate love, hate, friendship; a preference for saying "yes" when the answer
is "no" or "I don't know." They may not say "I love you" to their marital partner but convey the love in other ways. There is often a concern with not embarrassing another person by asking direct questions. Gestures may or may not be an integral part of the communication pattern.
h ave a concern with such things as posture and other nonverbal communication, not just for the sake of good posture but because it conveys respect, good training from parents, etc. For example, in some high context cultures (like Thailand) it is disrespectful for lower status people to put their hands in their pockets when talking to a higher status person.
h ave greetings that indicate deference to people of higher status (as with bowing in Japan or the wai in Thailand).
place a high value on fitting in with what other people say and do (dress, manners, etc.)
a re usually shame cultures so behaviors are seen as reflecting on your family, your
city/village and your country.
expression. Spontaneity and casualness characterize informal relationships. Within this context, successful communication requires an understanding of the explicit and implicit norms of behavior. One of the implicit norms of behavior is that there is an acceptable physical distance to maintain when interacting with another person. The distance varies according to the kind of relationship and degree of familiarity with the individual.
Q uestioning and challenging authority are both acceptable and encouraged. Questioning the teacher and authority figures suggests one has personal power and can help bring about change. Independence,
self-determination, and personal power are highly valued.
N onverbal communication such as posture, gestures, and facial expressions communicate a wealth of information. For example, eye contact is perceived to be important in validating recognition and communicating interest. It is also perceived as assertive and suggests that one has nothing to hide.
T ime is considered a valuable commodity. Being on time is valued and tardiness is considered disrespectful.
*h ave indirect communication styles. Meaning can
be found in many areas: symbolic gifts that indicate love, hate, friendship; a preference for saying "yes" when the answer is "no" or "I don't know." They may not say "I love you" to their marital partner but convey the love in other ways. There is often a concern with not embarrassing another person by asking direct questions. Gestures may or may not be an integral part of the communication pattern.
h ave a con cern with such things as posture and other nonverbal communication, not just for the sake of good posture but because it conveys respect, good training from parents, etc. For example, in some high context cultures (like Thailand) it is disrespectful for lower status people to put their hands in their pockets when talking to a higher status person.
h ave greetings that indicate deference to people of higher status (as with bowing in Japan or the wai in Thailand).
p lace a high value on fitting in with wh at other people say and do (dress, manners, etc.)
a re usually shame cultures so behaviors are seen as reflecting on your family, your city/village and your country.
expression. Spontaneity and casualness characterize informal relationships. Within this context, succe
ssful communication requires an understanding of the explicit and implic it norms of behavior. One of the implicit norms of behavior is that there is an acceptable physical distance to maintain when interacting with another person. The distance varies according to the kind of relationship and degree of familiarity with the individual.
Q uestioning and challenging authority are both acceptable and encouraged. Questioning the teacher and authority figures suggests one has personal power and can help bring about change. Independence,
self-determination, and personal power are highly valued.
N onverbal communication such as posture, gestures, and facial expressions communicate a wealth of information. For example, eye contact is perceived to be important in validating recognition and communicating interest. It is also perceived as assertive and suggests that one has nothing to hide.
T ime is considered a valuable commodity. Being on time is valued and tardiness is considered disrespectful.

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