英国文学发展史一览
1.English Literature of Anglo-Saxon Period
Time: about 7th century
Features: verse literature （唱诗）
two groups: pagan （非宗教性的） and religious
Main works:
“Beowulf”
poetry by Caedmon and Cynewulf
2.English Literature of Middle Centuries
Time: mid 11th Century – 15th Century
Features:
1.influence of the Norman Conquest
2.Main works and writers:
3.the Romances （骑士文学）
4.Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales”
3.English Literature of Renaissance
Time: early 16th Century—mid 17th Century
Features: the first glorious period of English literary history, “ A nest of singing birds …” （百家争鸣，百花齐放）
Main writers:
1.Thomas More
2.Edmund Spencer
3.Francis Bacon
4.Shakespeare
4.English Literature during the Bourgeois Revolution
Time:1625—1688
The English Bourgeois Revolution begins from 1642
Features:
Puritan age represented by John Milton
Main literary form: Poetry
Main writers:
John Milton 1608--1674
5.English Literature of the 18th Century
Features:
Also as the Enlightenment Movement Period （启蒙时期）
It is divided into 3 stages:
1.“Glorious revolution” to the end of 1730’s;
2.The mature period (1740’s—1750’s);
3.The last period covers the rest decades of the 18th century.
Main authors:
（小说家）Daniel Defoe， Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding
（诗人）Alexander Pope
6.Romanticism in England
Time: 1798--1832
Features:
1.是英国文学史上诗歌最为繁盛的时期；
2.分为消极和积极两组。
Main poets:
1.以William Wordsworth 为代表的消极派“湖畔派诗人”
2.以Shelley, Baron, Keats 为代表的积极派诗人。
7.English Literature of the Mid & Late 19th Century
Features:
又被称为“Critical Realism Period”即批判现实主义阶段；
以Charles Dickens 和William Thackeray 为代表的现实主义小说家；
作品集中反映19世纪英国的社会现实；
开始涌现一批女作家：有大家熟悉的Charlotte Bronte & Emily Bronte, 她们的代表作有《呼啸山庄》和《简 爱》
8.English Literature of the 20th Century
Features:
二十世纪以来，英国在世界上的主导地位日渐趋淡，二战以后更是附属于美国；
国内女权运动高涨；
文学作品多反映中下层人民的生活，涉及诸多生活侧面；
抒情诗再领潮流。
Main writers:
1.Bernard Shaw 的戏剧；
2.D.H. Lawrence 的情爱小说；
3.James Joyce 的意识流小说， “Stream of Consciousness”
4.William Butler Yeats 的诗歌。
Appreciation of poetry from the aspect of Versification
Contents
Ⅰ. Meter
Ⅱ. Foot
Ⅲ. Rhythm
Ⅳ. Sound patterns
Ⅴ. Rhyme
Ⅵ. Rhyme Scheme
Ⅶ. Forms of poem
Ⅷ. Appreciations
Ⅰ.meter （格）
1.concept:the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.
2.types:
“︶” stands for unstressed syllable and “_” represents stressed syllable. “\” is used to separate different feet.
1． 抑扬格（轻重格）Iambus：是最常见的一种格式，每个音步由一个非重读音节加一个重读音节构成。
As fair / art thou / my bon/nie lass,
So deep / in luve / am I :
And I / will luve / thee still,/ my dear,
Till a` / the seas / gang dry:
Robert Burns(1759-1796): My Luve Is like a Red, Red Rose
注:art=are  luve=love  bonnie=beautiful  a`=all  gang=go
上例中为四音步与三音步交叉，可标示为：
︶－／︶－／︶－／（︶－）
2．扬抑格（重轻格）Trochee：每个音步由一个重读音节加一个非重读音节构成。
Tyger!/ Tyger!/ burning / bright
  In the / forests / of the / night
William Blake: The Tyger
上例中为四音步扬抑格（少一个轻音节），可标示为：－︶／－︶／－︶／－
3． 抑抑扬格（轻轻重格）Anapaest foot: 每个音步由两个非重读音节加一个重读音节构成。
Like a child / from the womb,
Like a ghost / from the tomb,
I arise / and unbuild / it again.
三音步抑抑扬格︶︶－／︶︶－／︶︶－
4． 扬抑抑格（重轻轻格）Dactylic foot: 每个音步由一个重读音节加两个非重读音节构成。
ˊTouch her not / ˊscornfully,
ˊThink of her / ˊmournfully.
         
-- Thomas Hood   
两音步扬抑抑格－︶︶／－︶︶
5． 抑扬抑格（轻重轻格）Amphibrach：每个音步由一个非重读音节加一个重读音节再加一个非重读音节构成。
如：三音步抑扬抑格︶－︶／︶－︶／︶－︶
下例中最后一个音步为抑扬格。
O ˊhush thee / my ˊbabie / thy ˊsire was / a knight.
注：在同一首诗中常会出现不同的格律，格律解析对朗读诗歌有一定参考价值。现代诗中常不遵守规范的格律。
Ⅱ. Foot （音步）
1. Concept: a unit of poetic meter of stressed and  unstressed syllable
2.Types:
•Monometer: one foot;  Pentameter: five feet
•Dimeter: two feet;        Hexameter: six feet
•Trimeter: three feet;    Heptameter: seven feet
•Tetrameter: four feet;  Octameter: eight feet
Distinction between “foot” and “meter”
Foot is not to be confused with meter, though the names for feet end with
  “-meter”. Meter is based on syllables, indicating how stressed and unstressed syllables are arranged. Foot is applied with a single line, indicating how many meters are employed in that line. 
Note: Meter+foot =metrical rhythm/versification
Ⅲ. Rhythm （节奏/韵律）
concept: The passage of regular or approximately equivalent time intervals between definite events or the recurrence of specific sounds or kinds of sounds or the recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables is called rhythm.
Twinkle,  twinkle,  little  star,

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